Elemental aristocracy

Mzere uliwonse wa tebulo la periodic umathera kumapeto. Zaka zoposa XNUMX zapitazo, kukhalapo kwawo sikunali koyenera nkomwe. Kenako adadabwitsa dziko lapansi ndi mankhwala awo, kapena kusakhalapo kwawo. Ngakhale pambuyo pake zinapezeka kukhala zotulukapo zomveka za malamulo a chilengedwe. mpweya wabwino.

Patapita nthawi, iwo "anayamba kuchitapo kanthu", ndipo mu theka lachiwiri la zaka zapitazo anayamba kugwirizana ndi zinthu zochepa zolemekezeka. Tiyeni tiyambe nkhani ya primary high society monga chonchi:

Kalekale…

… Panali mbuye.

Lord Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) mu sketch yakale.

Henry Cavendish iye anali wa akuluakulu apamwamba a ku Britain, koma anali ndi chidwi chophunzira zinsinsi za chilengedwe. Mu 1766, adapeza haidrojeni, ndipo zaka khumi ndi zisanu ndi zinayi pambuyo pake adayesa kuyesa komwe adapeza chinthu china. Iye ankafuna kudziwa ngati mpweya ulinso ndi zinthu zina kuwonjezera pa oxygen ndi nitrogen zomwe zimadziwika kale. Anadzaza chubu lagalasi lopindika ndi mpweya, n'kumiza malekezero ake muzotengera za mercury ndikudutsa magetsi pakati pawo. Zonyezimirazi zinapangitsa kuti nayitrogeniyo aphatikizidwe ndi okosijeni, ndipo zinthu za acidic zomwe zinatulukamo zinamwedwa ndi njira ya alkali. Popanda mpweya, Cavendish adayidyetsa mu chubu ndikupitiriza kuyesa mpaka nayitrogeni yonse itachotsedwa. Kuyeserako kunatenga masabata angapo, pomwe kuchuluka kwa gasi mu chitoliro kumacheperachepera. Nayitrojeniyo itatheratu, Cavendish anachotsa mpweyawo n’kupeza kuti thovulo likadalipo, ndipo iye ankaganiza kuti linalipo. ¹/₁₂₀ mpweya woyamba. Ambuye sanafunse za mtundu wa zotsalirazo, poganizira zotsatira zake kukhala kulakwitsa kwa zochitika. Lero tikudziwa kuti anali pafupi kutsegula argon, koma panatenga zaka zoposa XNUMX kuti amalize kuyesako.

chinsinsi cha dzuwa

Kadamsana wa dzuŵa wakhala akukopa chidwi cha anthu wamba komanso asayansi. Pa August 18, 1868, akatswiri a sayansi ya zakuthambo ataona zimenezi anayamba kugwiritsa ntchito makina oonera zinthu zakuthambo (omwe anapangidwa zaka zosakwana teni zapitazo) kuti aphunzire mmene dzuwa limayendera, lomwe linkaoneka bwino ndi diski yakuda. Chifalansa Pierre Janssen m’njira imeneyi anatsimikizira kuti mphamvu ya dzuwa imakhala makamaka ndi haidrojeni ndi zinthu zina zapadziko lapansi. Koma tsiku lotsatira, poyang'ananso Dzuwa, adawona mzere wowoneka bwino womwe sunatchulidwe kale womwe uli pafupi ndi mzere wachikasu wa sodium. Janssen sanathe kunena kuti ndi chinthu chilichonse chomwe chimadziwika panthawiyo. Chimodzimodzinso chinanenedwa ndi katswiri wa zakuthambo wa ku England Norman locker. Asayansi apereka malingaliro osiyanasiyana onena za chinthu chodabwitsa cha nyenyezi yathu. Lockyer anamutcha iye mkulu mphamvu laser, m'malo mwa mulungu wachi Greek wa dzuwa - Helios. Komabe, asayansi ambiri ankakhulupirira kuti mzere wachikasu umene anawona unali mbali ya mpweya wa hydrogen pa kutentha kwambiri kwa nyenyeziyo. Mu 1881, katswiri wa sayansi ya zakuthambo wa ku Italy ndi meteorologist Luigi Palmieri anaphunzira za mpweya wophulika wa Vesuvius pogwiritsa ntchito spectroscope. M'mawonekedwe awo, adapeza gulu lachikasu lomwe limatchedwa helium. Komabe, Palmieri anafotokoza momveka bwino zotsatira za kufufuza kwake, ndipo asayansi ena sanatsimikizire zimenezo. Tsopano tikudziwa kuti helium imapezeka m'mipweya yophulika, ndipo dziko la Italy liyenera kuti linali loyamba kuona mawonekedwe a terrestrial helium.

Chithunzi chochokera ku 1901 chikuwonetsa zida zoyeserera za Cavendish

Kutsegula kwachitatu decimal malo

Kumayambiriro kwa zaka khumi zapitazi zazaka za zana la XNUMX, wasayansi waku Chingerezi Ambuye Rayleigh (John William Strutt) anaganiza molondola kudziwa kachulukidwe zosiyanasiyana mpweya, amenenso n'zotheka kudziwa molondola misa atomiki zinthu zawo. Rayleigh anali woyesera mwakhama, choncho anapeza mpweya kuchokera ku magwero osiyanasiyana kuti azindikire zonyansa zomwe zinganamizire zotsatira zake. Anatha kuchepetsa kulakwa kwa kutsimikiza mtima kufika pa zana limodzi mwa magawo zana, omwe panthawiyo anali ochepa kwambiri. Mipweya yowunikidwayo inasonyeza kutsata kachulukidwe kotsimikizika mkati mwa cholakwika cha kuyeza. Izi sizinadabwitse aliyense, chifukwa kapangidwe ka mankhwala sikudalira komwe adachokera. Kupatulapo kunali nayitrogeni - yokhayo inali ndi kachulukidwe kosiyana malinga ndi njira yopangira. Nayitrogeni mumlengalenga (zochokera ku mpweya pambuyo pa kulekana kwa mpweya, mpweya wa madzi ndi carbon dioxide) wakhala wolemera kuposa mankhwala (zopezedwa ndi kuwonongeka kwa mankhwala ake). Kusiyanako, modabwitsa, kunali kosasintha ndipo kunali pafupifupi 0,1%. Rayleigh, wolephera kufotokoza chodabwitsa ichi, adatembenukira kwa asayansi ena.

Thandizo loperekedwa ndi chemist William Ramsay. Asayansi onsewa ananena kuti chimene chinangofotokoza chinali kupezeka kwa mpweya wolemera kwambiri wa nayitrogeni wotengedwa mumpweya. Atakumana ndi kufotokoza za kuyesa kwa Cavendish, adawona kuti ali panjira yoyenera. Anabwereza kuyesako, nthaŵi ino akugwiritsira ntchito zipangizo zamakono, ndipo posakhalitsa anali ndi chitsanzo cha mpweya wosadziwika bwino m’manja mwawo. Kusanthula kwa Spectroscopic kwawonetsa kuti ilipo mosiyana ndi zinthu zodziwika, ndipo kafukufuku wina wasonyeza kuti ilipo ngati maatomu osiyana. Mpaka pano, mpweya woterewu sunadziwike (tili ndi O₂, N₂, H₂), kotero kuti zikutanthauzanso kutsegula chinthu chatsopano. Rayleigh ndi Ramsay anayesa kumupanga argon (Greek = waulesi) kuchita ndi zinthu zina, koma sizinaphule kanthu. Kuti adziwe kutentha kwa condensation yake, adatembenukira kwa munthu yekhayo padziko lapansi panthawiyo yemwe anali ndi zida zoyenera. Zinali Karol Olszewski, pulofesa wa chemistry ku yunivesite ya Jagiellonian. Olshevsky liquefied ndi olimba argon, komanso anatsimikiza ena thupi magawo.

Lipoti la Rayleigh ndi Ramsay mu August 1894 linachititsa chidwi kwambiri. Asayansi sanakhulupirire kuti mibadwo ya ochita kafukufuku inanyalanyaza 1% chigawo cha mpweya, chomwe chilipo pa Dziko Lapansi mu ndalama zambiri kuposa, mwachitsanzo, siliva. Mayesero a ena atsimikizira kukhalapo kwa argon. Kupezaku kunkaonedwa kuti ndi kupindula kwakukulu komanso kupambana kwa kuyesa mosamala (zinanenedwa kuti chinthu chatsopanocho chinabisidwa mu malo achitatu a decimal). Komabe, palibe amene ankayembekezera kuti padzakhala ...

… Banja lonse la mpweya.

Gulu la Helium (nambala ya atomiki pamwamba, misa ya atomiki pansi).

Ngakhale mlengalenga usanaunikidwe bwino, patatha chaka chimodzi, Ramsay anachita chidwi ndi nkhani ya m’magazini ya geology yomwe inanena za kutulutsidwa kwa mpweya wochokera ku miyala ya uranium itakumana ndi asidi. Ramsay anayesanso, kuyang'ana mpweya wotuluka ndi spectroscope ndikuwona mizere yosadziwika bwino. Kukambirana ndi William Crooks, katswiri wa spectroscopy, anachititsa kuti anthu atsimikize kuti akhala akufunidwa kwa nthawi yaitali padziko lapansi mkulu mphamvu laser. Tsopano tikudziwa kuti ichi ndi chimodzi mwa zinthu zowola za uranium ndi thorium, zomwe zili mu ores wa zinthu zachilengedwe zotulutsa ma radio. Ramsay adafunsanso Olszewski kuti asungunuke mpweya watsopanowo. Komabe, nthawi iyi zida sanali angathe kukwaniritsa kutentha mokwanira otsika, ndi helium madzi sanapezeke mpaka 1908.

Helium idakhalanso mpweya wa monatomic komanso wosagwira ntchito, ngati argon. Zinthu zonse ziwirizi sizinagwirizane ndi banja lililonse la tebulo la periodic ndipo adaganiza zowapangira gulu losiyana. [helowce_uklad] Ramsay adapeza kuti pali mipata mmenemo, ndipo pamodzi ndi mnzake. Morris Travers anayamba kufufuza kwina. Mwa kusungunula mpweya wamadzimadzi, akatswiri a zamankhwala anapeza mipweya ina itatu mu 1898: neon (gr = watsopano), kryptoni (gr. = skryty) i xenon (Chi Greek = akunja). Zonsezi, pamodzi ndi helium, zimakhalapo mumlengalenga mochepa, zochepa kwambiri kuposa argon. Kusasunthika kwamankhwala kwazinthu zatsopanozo kunapangitsa ofufuza kuti awapatse dzina lofanana. mpweya wabwino. 

Pambuyo poyesa kulekana ndi mpweya, helium ina inapezeka chifukwa cha kusintha kwa radioactive. Mu 1900 Frederick Dorn Oraz Andre-Louis Debirne adawona kutulutsidwa kwa gasi (manation, monga adanenera nthawiyo) kuchokera ku radium, yomwe adayitcha radon. Posakhalitsa anazindikira kuti emanations amatulutsanso thorium ndi actinium (thoron ndi actinon). Ramsay ndi Frederick Soddy adatsimikizira kuti ndi chinthu chimodzi ndipo ndi mpweya wotsatira womwe adautcha nitoni (Chilatini = kuwala chifukwa zitsanzo za mpweya zinawala mumdima). Mu 1923, nithon pomalizira pake inakhala radon, yotchedwa isotope yomwe imakhala yaitali kwambiri.

Kuyika komaliza kwa helium komwe kumamaliza tebulo lenileni la periodic kunapezeka mu 2006 ku labotale ya nyukiliya yaku Russia ku Dubna. Dzinalo, lovomerezedwa zaka khumi zokha pambuyo pake, Oganesson, polemekeza katswiri wa sayansi ya nyukiliya wa ku Russia Yuri Oganesyan. Chinthu chokha chomwe chimadziwika ponena za chinthu chatsopanocho ndi chakuti ndi cholemera kwambiri chomwe chimadziwika mpaka pano komanso kuti ma nuclei ochepa okha ndi omwe apezeka omwe akhala ndi moyo wosachepera millisecond.

Kusagwirizana kwa Chemical

Chikhulupiriro mu mankhwala passivity wa helium inagwa mu 1962 pamene Neil Bartlett adapeza kaphatikizidwe ka formula Xe [PtF₆]. The umagwirira wa mankhwala xenon masiku ano kwambiri ndithu: fluorides, oxides ngakhale mchere asidi wa chinthu ichi amadziwika. Kuonjezera apo, iwo ndi okhazikika mankhwala pansi pa zinthu zabwinobwino. Krypton ndi yopepuka kuposa xenon, imapanga ma fluoride angapo, monganso radon yolemera kwambiri (radioactivity yotsirizirayi imapangitsa kufufuza kukhala kovuta kwambiri). Kumbali ina, atatu opepuka kwambiri - helium, neon ndi argon - alibe mankhwala okhazikika.

Mankhwala opangidwa ndi mpweya wabwino wokhala ndi zibwenzi zochepa zolemekezeka angayerekezedwe ndi zolakwika zakale. Masiku ano, lingaliro ili silikugwiranso ntchito, ndipo munthu sayenera kudabwa kuti ...

Ma helikopita, kuchokera kumanzere kupita kumanja: Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt, 1842–1919), Sir William Ramsay (1852–1916) ndi Morris Travers (1872–1961); chithunzi chochokera ku University College London.

… olemekezeka amagwira ntchito.

Helium imapezeka polekanitsa mpweya wa liquefied mu zomera za nayitrogeni ndi mpweya. Kumbali ina, gwero la helium makamaka ndi gasi wachilengedwe, momwe amafikira pang'ono peresenti ya voliyumu (ku Europe, fakitale yayikulu kwambiri yopanga helium imagwira ntchito Ndinakana, mu Greater Poland Voivodeship). Ntchito yawo yoyamba inali yowala mu machubu owala. Masiku ano, kutsatsa kwa neon kumangosangalatsabe m'maso, koma zida za helium ndizonso maziko amitundu ina ya lasers, monga argon laser yomwe tidzakumana nayo kwa dotolo wamano kapena wokongoletsa.

Kutulutsa kwa ojambula kwa Xenon Ion Probe Dawn pafupi ndi asteroid Ceres.

Kuphatikizika kwamankhwala kwa makhazikitsidwe a helium kumagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga mlengalenga womwe umateteza ku okosijeni, mwachitsanzo, powotcherera zitsulo kapena hermetic chakudya ma CD. Nyali zodzaza ndi helium zimagwira ntchito pa kutentha kwakukulu (ndiko kuti, zimawala kwambiri) ndipo zimagwiritsa ntchito magetsi bwino. Nthawi zambiri argon amagwiritsidwa ntchito osakanizidwa ndi nayitrogeni, koma krypton ndi xenon amapereka zotsatira zabwinoko. Kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwaposachedwa kwa xenon ndizomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito mu ion rocket propulsion, yomwe imakhala yogwira mtima kwambiri kusiyana ndi kuyendetsa mankhwala. Helium yopepuka kwambiri imadzazidwa ndi mabuloni anyengo ndi mabuloni a ana. Posakanikirana ndi mpweya, helium imagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi anthu osiyanasiyana kuti agwire ntchito mozama kwambiri, zomwe zimathandiza kupewa matenda a decompression. Ntchito yofunika kwambiri ya helium ndikukwaniritsa kutentha komwe kumafunikira kuti ma superconductors agwire ntchito.

Kusakaniza kwa okosijeni-helium kumatsimikizira kudumphira kotetezeka.