kusunga chakudya

Choyambitsa chachikulu cha kuwonongeka kwa chakudya ndi tizilombo tating'onoting'ono, ndipo njira zokonzetsera ndicholinga choletsa kukula ndikukula kwawo muzakudya zomwe zimasungidwa ndikusintha mawonekedwe amafuta a chakudya kapena kulongedza ndikutseka kuti achepetse kukula kwake, potero akuwonjezeka. chitetezo cha chakudya.Mmene izi zinkachitikira m'nthawi zakale komanso zakale komanso momwe lero mudzaphunzire kuchokera m'nkhani yotsatirayi.

nkhani yakumbuyo Mwinamwake njira yakale kwambiri yotalikitsira moyo wa alumali ya zakudya inali kuzifukiza ndi kuziwumitsa pamoto kapena padzuwa ndi mphepo. Mwa njira imeneyi, mwachitsanzo, nyama ndi nsomba zikanatha kupulumuka m’nyengo yozizira (1). Kuyanika kale 12 zikwi. zaka zapitazo idagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri ku Middle East ndi Central Asia. Komabe, zomwe mwina sizinali zomveka panthawiyo zinali kuti kuchotsa madzi muzinthuzo kumawonjezera moyo wake wothandiza.

1. Kusuta nsomba pamoto

Chakale Mchere wathandiza kwambiri anthu polimbana ndi tizilombo toyambitsa matenda timene timawononga chakudya, zomwe zimalepheretsa tizilombo toyambitsa matenda. Anali kale kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri ku Greece wakale, kumene kugwiritsa ntchito brine kunkagwiritsidwa ntchito kuwonjezera moyo wa nsomba. Aroma nawonso ankaphika nyama yokazinga. Apicius, mlembi wa buku lodziwika bwino la cookbook la nthawi ya Augustus ndi Tiberius "De re coquinaria libri X" ("Pa luso la kuphika mabuku 10"), adalangiza kufewetsa mankhwala osungidwa motere powaphika mu mkaka.

Mosiyana ndi maonekedwe, mbiri ya zakudya zowonjezera zakudya ndi yaitali kwambiri. Anthu a ku Aigupto akale ankagwiritsa ntchito cochineal (lero E 120) ndi curcumin (E 100) popaka nyama, sodium nitrite (E 250) ankagwiritsa ntchito mchere wa nyama, ndipo sulfure dioxide (E 220) ndi acetic acid (E 260) ankagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati utoto. . zoteteza. . Zinthu izi zidagwiritsidwanso ntchito pazinthu zofananira ku Greece ndi Roma wakale.

Chabwino. 1000 ndalama Monga momwe mtolankhani Wachifalansa Magelon Toussaint-Samat akunenera m’buku lake lakuti “Mbiri ya Chakudya,” zakudya zoziziritsa kukhosi zinali zitadziwika kale ku China ndi anthu 3. zaka zambiri zapitazo.

1000-500 tenge Ku Auvergne, ku France, zofukulidwa m’mabwinja zapeza nkhokwe zoposa chikwi za m’nthawi ya Gallic. Asayansi amakhulupirira kuti a Gauls ankadziwa zinsinsi za kusunga chakudya cha vacuum. Posunga tirigu, poyamba ankayesa kuwononga mabakiteriya ndi tizilombo toyambitsa matenda ndi moto, kenako anadzaza nkhokwe zawo m'njira yoti mpweya wopita kumunsi ukhale wotsekedwa. Chifukwa cha zimenezi, njere akhoza kusungidwa kwa zaka zambiri.

IV-II vpne Kuyesera kwapangidwanso kusunga zakudya ndi pickling, pogwiritsa ntchito vinyo wosasa. Zitsanzo zodziwika bwino zimachokera ku Roma Yakale. Marinade otchuka a masamba ndiye adapangidwa kuchokera ku viniga, uchi ndi mpiru. Malinga ndi Apichush, uchi unalinso woyenera kwa marinades, chifukwa unkasunga nyamayo kwa masiku angapo ngakhale nyengo yotentha.

Ku Greece, quince ndi chisakanizo cha uchi wokhala ndi uchi wochepa wouma adagwiritsidwa ntchito pachifukwa ichi - zonsezi ndi zogulitsazo zinali zodzaza mitsuko. Aroma ankagwiritsanso ntchito njira yomweyi, koma m’malo mwake anaphika uchi wosakaniza ndi quince kuti asagwirizane. Amalonda aku India ndi Kum'maŵa, nawonso, adabweretsa nzimbe ku Europe - tsopano amayi apanyumba amatha kuphunzira kupanga "zakudya zam'chitini" powotcha zipatso ndi nzimbe.

1794-1809 Nthawi yowotchera zam'chitini masiku ano idayambanso m'chaka cha 1794, pomwe Napoliyoni adayamba kufunafuna njira zosungira zakudya zomwe zimatha kuwonongeka kwa asitikali ake omwe akumenya nkhondo kutsidya la nyanja, pamtunda komanso panyanja.

Mu 1795, boma la France linapereka bonasi ya 12. francs kwa iwo omwe amabwera ndi njira yowonjezeretsa moyo wa alumali wazinthu. M'chaka cha 1809rd adalandiridwa ndi Mfalansa Nicolas Upper (3). Anayambitsa ndi kukonza njira yowerengera mtengo. Kunkaphatikizapo kuphika zakudya kwa nthaŵi yaitali m’madzi otentha kapena nthunzi, m’ziwiya zomata kwambiri, monga mitsuko kapena zitini zachitsulo. Ngakhale kupanga masanjidwe kudakhazikitsidwa ku France ndipo kupanga kumatha kuyambika ku England, sizinali mpaka ku America pomwe njirayo idapangidwa mwakuchita.

XIX pa. Zakudya zamchere zakhala zikudziwika kwa nthawi yaitali. M’kupita kwa nthaŵi, anthu anayamba kuyesa, ndipo m’zaka za m’ma 20 anapeza kuti mchere wina umapangitsa nyama kukhala yofiira mokongola m’malo mwa imvi. Kudzera mu zoyeserera zomwe zidachitika m'zaka za m'ma XNUMX, asayansi adazindikira kuti kusakaniza kwa mchere (nitrate) kumalepheretsa kukula kwa botulinum bacilli.

1821 Zotsatira zabwino zoyamba zogwiritsira ntchito mlengalenga wosinthidwa pazinthu zazakudya zidawonedwa. Jacques Etienne Bérard, pulofesa pa School of Pharmacy ku Montpellier, France, anapeza ndi kulengeza kudziko lonse kuti kusunga zipatso m’mikhalidwe yotsika ya okosijeni kumapangitsa kuti zipse pang’onopang’ono komanso zizikhala ndi moyo wautali. Komabe, kusungidwa kwa mlengalenga (CAS) sikunagwiritsidwe ntchito mpaka zaka za m'ma 30, pamene maapulo ndi mapeyala ankasungidwa m'zombo m'zipinda zomwe zili ndi CO.₂ - kutalikitsa kutsitsimuka kwawo.

5. Ludwik Pasteur - chithunzi cha Albert Edelfelt

1862-1871 Firiji yoyamba inapangidwa ndi woyambitsa wa ku Australia James Harrison, katswiri wosindikiza mabuku. Ngakhale kupanga kwake kunayambika ndipo kunachitika pamsika, koma m'malo ambiri omwe anayambitsa chipangizo chamtunduwu ndi injiniya wa ku Bavaria Karl von Linde. Mu 1871, adagwiritsa ntchito njira yozizirira ku Munich Spaten yomwe idalola kuti mowa upangidwe m'chilimwe. Woziziritsa anali dimethyl ether kapena ammonia (Harrison adagwiritsanso ntchito methyl ether). Madzi oundana omwe ankawapeza pogwiritsa ntchito njira imeneyi ankawapanga kukhala midadada n’kupita nawo m’nyumba, kumene ankakhala m’makabati otsekeredwa m’nyumba mmene chakudya ankazizirira.

1863 Ludwik Pasteur (5) akufotokoza mwasayansi njira ya pasteurization, yomwe imalola tizilombo toyambitsa matenda kuti tiyike pamene tikusunga kukoma kwa chakudya. Njira yachikale ya pasteurization imaphatikizapo kutenthetsa mankhwala mpaka kutentha kwa pamwamba pa 72 ° C, koma osapitirira 100 ° C. Mwachitsanzo, imaphatikizapo kutenthetsa mpaka 100 ° C kwa mphindi imodzi kapena 85 ° C kwa mphindi 30 mu chipangizo chotsekedwa chotchedwa pasteurizer.

1899 Zotsatira zowononga za kuthamanga kwakukulu pa tizilombo tina tawonetsa ndi Bert Holmes Height. Anaika mkaka ku mphamvu ya 10 MPa kwa mphindi 680 kutentha kwa firiji, ndikuzindikira kuti chifukwa cha tizilombo toyambitsa matenda zomwe zili mu mkaka zinachepa. Komanso, nyama pansi kuthamanga 540 MPa pa kutentha 52 ° C kwa ola anasonyeza palibe kusintha microbiological pa masabata atatu yosungirako.

M'zaka zotsatira, kufufuza kofunikira kunachitika pa zotsatira za kuthamanga kwakukulu, i.e. pa mapuloteni, michere, structural zinthu za maselo ndi lonse tizilombo. Njirayi imatchedwa pascalization, pambuyo pa wasayansi wamkulu wa ku France Blaise Pascal, ndipo ikusinthabe. Mu 1990, kupanikizana kwakukulu kunayambika pamsika wa ku Japan, ndipo chaka chotsatira, zakudya zambiri monga yogurt ya zipatso ndi ma jellies, mayonesi saladi kuvala, etc.

1905 Zoperekedwa ndi akatswiri a zamankhwala a ku Britain J. Appleby ndi A. J. Banks. Kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kothandiza kwa kuwala kwa chakudya kunayamba mu 1921, pamene wasayansi wa ku America anapeza kuti X-ray ikhoza kupha Trichinella, tizilombo tomwe timapezeka mu nkhumba.

chakudya ankachitira ndi radioactive isotopu wa cesium 137 kapena cobalt 60 mu insulators kutsogolera - isotopu wa zinthu izi zimatulutsa maginito ionizing cheza mu mawonekedwe a gamma cheza. Ntchito yowonjezereka ya njira zimenezi inayamba ku England pambuyo pa 1930, ndiyeno ku United States pambuyo pa 1940. Kuyambira cha m’ma 1955, kufufuza za kusunga chakudya motenthedwa bwino kunayamba m’maiko ambiri. Posakhalitsa, chakudya chinasungidwa pogwiritsa ntchito cheza cha ionizing, chomwe chinapangitsa kuti zikhale zotheka kuwonjezera moyo wa alumali, mwachitsanzo, nkhuku, koma sizinatsimikizire kuti mankhwalawa ndi osabereka. Iwo ali bwinobwino ntchito kupondereza kumera mbatata ndi anyezi.

1906 Kubadwa mwalamulo kwa kuyanika kozizira (6). M’ntchito yawo yoperekedwa ku Academy of Sciences ku Paris, katswiri wa zamoyo Frederic Bordas ndi dokotala ndi wasayansi Jacques-Arsene d’Arsonval anatsimikizira kuti n’zotheka kuyanika seramu yamagazi youndana komanso yosamva kutentha. The whey zouma motere anakhalabe khola kwa nthawi yaitali firiji. Oyambitsawo, m'maphunziro awo otsatira, adalongosola kuti njira yawo ingagwiritsidwe ntchito kukonza ndi kusunga sera ndi katemera kuti zikhale bwino. Kuchotsa madzi kuzinthu zozizira kumachitikanso m'chilengedwe - izi zakhala zikugwiritsidwa ntchito ndi Eskimos. Kuyanika kozizira kwa mafakitale kudagwiritsidwa ntchito mu theka lachiwiri la zaka za zana la XNUMX.

6. Zinthu zouma zowuma

1913 DOMELRE (DoMestic ELEctric Refrigerator), firiji yoyamba yamagetsi yamagetsi, idagulitsidwa ku Chicago. M’chaka chomwecho, mafiriji anaonekera ku Germany. Chitsanzo cha ku America chinali ndi thupi lamatabwa ndi makina ozizira pamwamba. Sinali kwenikweni firiji monga tikudziwira lero, koma firiji yokonzedwa kuti ikhale pamwamba pa firiji yomwe ilipo.

The refrigerant anali poizoni sulfure dioxide. Mafiriji a ku Germany (opangidwa ndi AEG) anali ophimbidwa ndi matailosi a ceramic. Komabe, pafupi ndi malo odyera achijeremani okha omwe angakwanitse kugula zipangizozi, chifukwa amawononga zizindikiro zamakono za 1750, zomwe ziri zofanana ndi malo a dziko.

7. Clarence Birdseye ku Far North

1922 Clarence Birdseye, ali mu kuzizira Labrador (7), anapeza kuti pa -40 ° C, nsomba anagwidwa pafupifupi yomweyo anazizira, ndipo pamene thawed anali kukoma mwatsopano, kosiyana kotheratu nsomba mazira amene akanatha kugulidwa ku New York. Posakhalitsa anatulukira njira yoziziritsira chakudya mwamsanga.

Tsopano zikudziwika kuti kuzizira kofulumira kumapanga timizere tating'ono ta ayezi, zomwe zimawononga minofu pang'ono kuposa njira zina. Birdseye adayesa nsomba zoziziritsa kukhosi ku Clothel Refrigerator Company ndipo pambuyo pake adakhazikitsa Birdseye Seafoods Inc. Imagwira ntchito yoziziritsa nsomba mumpweya wozizira wa -43 ° C, koma idasokonekera mu 1924 chifukwa chosowa chidwi cha ogula.

Komabe, chaka chomwecho, Birdseye adapanga njira yatsopano yoziziritsira kung'anima kwa malonda - kunyamula nsomba m'mabokosi a makatoni ndikuzizira zomwe zili pakati pa malo awiri afiriji mopanikizika; ndipo adapanga kampani yatsopano, General Seafood Corporation.

8. Kutsatsa firiji ya Electrolux kuyambira 1939.

1935-1939 Chifukwa cha Electrolux, mafiriji ayamba kuonekera mochuluka m'nyumba wamba za Kowalski (8).

Zaka za m'ma 60. Mankhwala opha tizilombo ayamba kugwiritsidwa ntchito kusunga chakudya. Komabe, kuwonjezeka kofulumira kwa mabakiteriya omwe amatsutsana ndi mankhwalawa kunapangitsa kuti ntchito yawo ikhale yoletsedwa. Posakhalitsa anapeza kuti mabakiteriya a lactic acid amapanga mankhwala achilengedwe a nisin, omwe si okhudzana ndi mankhwala achipatala. Nisin amasungidwa, makamaka, mu nyama zosuta ndi tchizi.

Zaka za m'ma 90. Mu theka lachiwiri la zaka khumi zapitazi za zaka zapitazi, kafukufuku anayamba kugwiritsa ntchito plasma kuti athetse tizilombo toyambitsa matenda, ngakhale kuti njira yowonongeka ya plasma inali yovomerezeka m'ma 60s. ankaona teknoloji ya m'badwo woyamba, zomwe zikutanthauza kuti mu nthawi yoyamba ya chitukuko.

9. Chikuto cha bukhu la Lothar Leistner ndi Graham Gould la njira yopondereza.

2000 Lothar Leistner (9) amatanthauzira ukadaulo wotchinga, ndiko kuti, njira yochotsera ndendende tizilombo toyambitsa matenda pazakudya. Imakhazikitsa "zopinga" zina zomwe tizilombo toyambitsa matenda tiyenera kuthana ndi kuti tipulumuke. Tikukamba za njira zosakanikirana zomwe zimatsimikizira chitetezo cha chakudya ndi kukhazikika kwa microbiological, komanso kukoma koyenera, khalidwe la zakudya komanso kuthekera kwachuma. Zitsanzo za zopinga m'dongosolo la chakudya ndi kutentha kwakukulu kwa kukonza, kutentha kochepa kosungirako, kuchuluka kwa acidity, kuchepa kwa madzi, kapena kukhalapo kwa zinthu zotetezera.

Poganizira zamtundu wa chinthucho ndi ma microflora omwe amapezeka pamenepo, zinthu zomwe zili pamwambazi zimasankhidwa kuti achotse tizilombo tating'onoting'ono pazakudya kapena kuzichepetsa. Chinthu chilichonse ndi chopinga china. Mwa kulumpha pamwamba pawo mmodzimmodzi, tizilombo toyambitsa matenda timafowoka, ndipo m’kupita kwanthaŵi timafika poti sakhalanso ndi mphamvu zopitirizira kulumpha. Kenako kukula kwawo kumayima ndipo ziwerengero zawo zimakhazikika pamalo otetezeka - kapena amafa. Njira yomaliza ya njirayi ndi mankhwala otetezera mankhwala, omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito pokhapokha ngati zopinga zina sizikulepheretsa mokwanira zochita za tizilombo toyambitsa matenda kapena pamene zopinga zimachotsa zakudya zambiri m'zakudya.

Njira Zosungira Chakudya

Zakuthupi

• Kutentha - kuphatikiza kugwiritsa ntchito kutentha kwambiri kapena kutsika:

     - kuzizira,

     - kuzizira,

     - kutsekereza,

     - pasteurization,

     - kuyanika,

     - tyndallization (fractionated pasteurization ndi njira yosungira zakudya zamzitini, zomwe zimakhala ndi pasteurization kawiri kapena katatu ndi nthawi ya tsiku limodzi kapena atatu; mawuwa amachokera ku dzina la wasayansi wa ku Ireland John Tyndall).

• Kuchepetsa ntchito yamadzi posintha kutentha kapena kuwonjezera zinthu zomwe zimasintha kuthamanga kwa osmotic:

     - kuyanika,

     - condensation (evaporation, cryoconcentration, osmosis, dialysis, reverse osmosis),

     - kuwonjezera zinthu za osmoactive.

• Kugwiritsa ntchito mpweya woteteza m'zipinda zosungiramo zinthu (modified or controlled atmosphere) kapena muzakudya:

     - nayitrogeni,

     - carbon dioxide,

     - vacuum.

• Ma radiation:

     - UVC,

     - ionizing.

• Kulumikizana kwamagetsi, yomwe imaphatikizapo kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu za electromagnetic field:

     - kuthamangitsa minda yamagetsi,

     - minda yamagetsi yamagetsi.

• Kukakamiza kugwiritsa ntchito:

     -kukwezeka kwambiri (UHP),

     - apamwamba (GDP).

Mankhwala

• Kuonjezera mankhwala ku preservative solution:

     - kusuta,

     - kuwonjezera ma inorganic acid,

     - kusuta,

     - kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala ena otetezera (antiseptics, antibiotics).

• Kuphatikizika kwa mankhwala mumlengalenga wa process:

     - kusuta.

zamoyo

• Njira za Fermentation mothandizidwa ndi tizilombo toyambitsa matenda:

     - lactic acid nayonso mphamvu,

     - vinyo wosasa,

     - propionic (chifukwa cha mabakiteriya propionic).