Ndi atomu kupyola mibadwo - gawo 3

Chitsanzo cha mapulaneti cha Rutherford cha atomu chinali pafupi kwambiri ndi zenizeni kuposa "zoumba zoumba" za Thomson. Komabe, moyo wa lingaliro limeneli unatha zaka ziwiri zokha, koma asanalankhule za wolowa m'malo, ndi nthawi kuvumbulutsa zinsinsi atomiki lotsatira.

1. Ma isotopu a haidrojeni: stable prot ndi deuterium ndi radioactive tritium (chithunzi: BruceBlaus/Wikimedia Commons).

kuphulika kwa nyukiliya

Kupezeka kwa chodabwitsa cha radioactivity, chomwe chinali chiyambi cha kuvumbula zinsinsi za atomu, poyamba anaopseza maziko umagwirira - lamulo la periodicity. Posakhalitsa, zinthu zingapo za radioactive zidadziwika. Ena mwa iwo anali ndi mankhwala omwewo, ngakhale kuti anali ndi ma atomiki osiyanasiyana, pamene ena, okhala ndi misa yofanana, anali ndi katundu wosiyana. Kuphatikiza apo, kudera la tebulo la periodic komwe amayenera kuyikidwa chifukwa cha kulemera kwawo, kunalibe malo omasuka okwanira onse. The periodic table idatayika chifukwa cha kuchuluka kwa zopezedwa.

2. Chithunzi cha J.J. Thompson's 1911 mass spectrometer (chithunzi: Jeff Dahl/Wikimedia Commons)

nyukiliya ya atomiki

Izi ndi 10-100 zikwi. nthawi zazing'ono kuposa atomu yonse. Ngati nyukiliyasi ya atomu ya haidrojeni itakulitsidwa kufika kukula kwa mpira wokhala ndi masentimita 1 m’mimba mwake ndi kuikidwa pakati pa bwalo la mpira, ndiye kuti elekitironi (yaing’ono kuposa mutu wa pini) ikanakhala pafupi ndi cholinga. (kuposa 50 m).

Pafupifupi unyinji wonse wa atomu umakhazikika mu phata, mwachitsanzo, golide ndi pafupifupi 99,98%. Tangoganizani kyubu yachitsulochi yolemera matani 19,3. Zonse ma atomu golidi ali ndi voliyumu yonse yosakwana 1/1000 mm3 (mpira wokhala ndi mainchesi osakwana 0,1 mm). Chifukwa chake, atomu ilibe kanthu. Owerenga ayenera kuwerengera kachulukidwe wa zinthu m'munsi.

Njira yothetsera vutoli idapezeka mu 1910 ndi Frederick Soddy. Anayambitsa lingaliro la isotopi, i.e. mitundu ya zinthu zomwezo zomwe zimasiyana mu mphamvu ya atomiki (1). Chifukwa chake, adakayikira lingaliro lina la Dalton - kuyambira nthawi imeneyo, chinthu chamankhwala sichiyeneranso kukhala ndi maatomu amtundu womwewo. Lingaliro la isotopu, pambuyo potsimikizira zoyeserera (mass spectrograph, 1911), zidapangitsanso kufotokozera zamagulu a atomiki azinthu zina - ambiri aiwo ndi osakanikirana a isotopu ambiri, ndi mphamvu ya atomiki ndiye chiŵerengero cholemera cha unyinji wa onsewo (2).

Zigawo za Kernel

Wina wa ophunzira a Rutherford, Henry Moseley, anaphunzira ma X-ray opangidwa ndi zinthu zodziwika mu 1913. Mosiyana ndi mawonekedwe owoneka bwino, mawonekedwe a X-ray ndi osavuta - chilichonse chimatulutsa mafunde awiri okha, mafunde omwe amalumikizana mosavuta ndi kuwongolera kwa nyukiliyasi yake ya atomiki.

3. Imodzi mwa makina a X-ray omwe Moseley amagwiritsa ntchito (chithunzi: Magnus Manske/Wikimedia Commons)

Izi zidapangitsa kuti zitheke kwa nthawi yoyamba kuwonetsa nambala yeniyeni ya zinthu zomwe zilipo, komanso kudziwa kuti ndi zingati zomwe sizili zokwanira kudzaza mipata mu tebulo la periodic (3).

Tinthu tating'onoting'ono timatchedwa proton (Greek proton = choyamba). Nthawi yomweyo vuto lina linabuka. Kulemera kwa proton ndi pafupifupi wofanana ndi 1 unit. Pomwe nyukiliya ya atomiki sodium yokhala ndi ma unit 11 imakhala ndi ma unit 23? N'chimodzimodzinso ndi zinthu zina. Izi zikutanthauza kuti payenera kukhala tinthu tating'onoting'ono tomwe timakhala mu nyukiliyasi osati kukhala ndi mtengo. Poyamba, akatswiri a sayansi ya zakuthambo ankaganiza kuti mapulotoni omangidwa mwamphamvu ndi ma electron, koma pamapeto pake zinatsimikiziridwa kuti tinthu tatsopano tawonekera - nyutroni (Latin neuter = ndale). Kupezeka kwa kachigawo kakang'ono kameneka (komwe timati "njerwa" zoyamba zomwe zimapanga zinthu zonse) kunapangidwa mu 1932 ndi wasayansi wachingelezi James Chadwick.

Mapulotoni ndi ma neutroni amatha kusinthana wina ndi mnzake. Akatswiri a sayansi ya zakuthambo amalingalira kuti ndi mitundu ya tinthu tating’ono totchedwa nucleon (Latin nucleus = nucleus).

Popeza phata la isotopu yosavuta ya hydrogen ndi pulotoni, zikuwoneka kuti William Prout mu lingaliro lake la "hydrogen" kupanga atomu sanalakwe kwambiri (onani: “Ndi atomu kupyola mu mibadwo – gawo 2”; “Young Technician” No. 8/2015). Poyamba, panali ngakhale kusinthasintha pakati pa mayina proton ndi "proton".

4. Photocells pamapeto - maziko a ntchito yawo ndi photoelectric effect (chithunzi: Ies / Wikimedia Commons)

Sizinthu zonse zololedwa

Chitsanzo cha Rutherford pa nthawi ya maonekedwe ake chinali ndi "chilema chobadwa nacho". Malinga ndi malamulo a Maxwell a electrodynamics (otsimikiziridwa ndi kuwulutsa kwa wailesi kukagwira ntchito kale panthawiyo), elekitironi yoyenda mozungulira iyenera kuwunikira mafunde a electromagnetic.

Choncho, imataya mphamvu, chifukwa chake imagwera pamphuno. M'mikhalidwe yabwinobwino, maatomu satulutsa (mawonekedwe amapangidwa akatenthedwa kutentha kwambiri) ndipo masoka a atomiki samawonedwa (nthawi yoyerekeza ya moyo wa elekitironi ndi yosakwana miliyoni imodzi ya sekondi).

Chitsanzo cha Rutherford anafotokoza zotsatira za kuyesa tinthu kubalalitsa, komabe sizinagwirizane ndi zenizeni.

Mu 1913, anthu "adazolowera" kuti mphamvu mu microcosm imatengedwa ndikutumizidwa osati kuchuluka kulikonse, koma m'magawo, otchedwa quanta. Pazifukwa izi, Max Planck anafotokoza chikhalidwe cha sipekitiramu ma radiation opangidwa ndi matupi mkangano (1900), ndi Albert Einstein (1905) anafotokoza zinsinsi za zotsatira photoelectric, mwachitsanzo, kutulutsa ma elekitironi ndi zitsulo zowala (4).

5. Chithunzi chosiyana cha ma elekitironi pa tantalum oxide crystal chikuwonetsa mawonekedwe ake (chithunzi: Sven.hovmoeller/Wikimedia Commons)

Katswiri wa sayansi ya zakuthambo wa ku Denmark Niels Bohr wa zaka 28 anawongolera chitsanzo cha Rutherford cha atomu. Iye ananena kuti ma elekitironi amangoyenda m’njira zomwe zimakwaniritsa mphamvu zinazake. Kuphatikiza apo, ma elekitironi satulutsa ma radiation akamayenda, ndipo mphamvu imangotengeka ndikutuluka ikatsekeredwa pakati pa mayendedwe. Malingalirowo amatsutsana ndi physics yakale, koma zotsatira zomwe zinapezedwa pazifukwa zawo (kukula kwa atomu ya haidrojeni ndi kutalika kwa mizere ya sipekitiramu yake) zinakhala zogwirizana ndi kuyesera. wobadwa kumene chitsanzo cha atomu.

Tsoka ilo, zotsatira zake zinali zovomerezeka kwa atomu ya haidrojeni (koma sizinafotokoze zowonera zonse). Kwa zinthu zina, zotsatira zowerengera sizinagwirizane ndi zenizeni. Motero, akatswiri a sayansi ya zakuthambo analibebe chitsanzo cha chiphunzitso cha atomu.

Zinsinsi zinayamba kumveka patapita zaka khumi ndi chimodzi. Zolemba za udokotala za wasayansi waku France Ludwik de Broglie zinali zokhudzana ndi mawonekedwe a mafunde a tinthu tating'onoting'ono. Zatsimikiziridwa kale kuti kuwala, kuwonjezera pa mawonekedwe a mawonekedwe a mafunde (diffraction, refraction), amakhalanso ngati gulu la tinthu tating'onoting'ono - zithunzithunzi (mwachitsanzo, kugunda kwa ma elekitironi). Koma misa zinthu? Lingalirolo linkawoneka ngati loto la chitoliro kwa kalonga yemwe ankafuna kukhala katswiri wa sayansi. Komabe, mu 1927 kuyesa kunachitika komwe kunatsimikizira malingaliro a de Broglie - mtengo wa elekitironi unasokonekera pa kristalo wachitsulo (5).

Kodi maatomu anachokera kuti?

Monga wina aliyense: Big Bang. Akatswiri a sayansi ya zakuthambo amakhulupirira kuti kwenikweni mu kachigawo kakang'ono ka sekondi kuchokera pa "zero point" mapulotoni, ma neutroni ndi ma electron, ndiko kuti, ma atomu omwe ali nawo, adapangidwa. Patapita mphindi zoŵerengeka (pamene thambo linazirala ndi kusachulukana kwa zinthu kucheperachepera), ma nucleon analumikizana pamodzi, kupanga phata la maelementi ena kusiyapo haidrojeni. Kuchuluka kwakukulu kwa helium kunapangidwa, komanso zizindikiro za zinthu zitatu zotsatirazi. Pambuyo pa 100 XNUMX Kwa zaka zambiri, zinthu zinalola kuti ma electron amangirire ku nuclei - ma atomu oyambirira anapangidwa. Ndinayenera kudikira kwa nthawi yaitali kuti ndipeze yotsatira. Kusinthasintha kwachisawawa mu kachulukidwe kunayambitsa mapangidwe a kachulukidwe, omwe, momwe amawonekera, amakopa zinthu zambiri. Posakhalitsa, mumdima wa chilengedwe chonse, nyenyezi zoyamba zinayamba kuwala.

Patapita zaka pafupifupi biliyoni imodzi, ena a iwo anayamba kufa. Munjira yawo adapanga ma atomu mpaka kuchitsulo. Ino, pa kupwa kufwa, basambakenya mu ntanda yonso, ne ntanda mipya yabutwilwe ku mfulo. Opambana kwambiri aiwo anali ndi mathero odabwitsa. Panthawi ya kuphulika kwa supernova, nyukiliyayi inaphulitsidwa ndi tinthu tambirimbiri tomwe timapanga ngakhale zinthu zolemera kwambiri. Iwo anapanga nyenyezi zatsopano, mapulaneti, ndi pa globes - moyo.

Kukhalapo kwa mafunde a zinthu kwatsimikiziridwa. Kumbali inayi, electron mu atomu inkaonedwa ngati yoyimirira, chifukwa chake sichimatulutsa mphamvu. Mafunde a ma elekitironi osuntha anagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga maikulosikopu a ma elekitironi, omwe amatheketsa kuwona maatomu kwa nthawi yoyamba (6). M'zaka zotsatira, ntchito ya Werner Heisenberg ndi Erwin Schrödinger (pamaziko a Broglie hypothesis) zinapangitsa kukhala kotheka kupanga chitsanzo chatsopano cha ma elekitironi zipolopolo atomu, kwathunthu zochokera zinachitikira. Koma awa ndi mafunso opitilira muyeso wa nkhaniyi.

Maloto a akatswiri a alchemist anakwaniritsidwa

Kusintha kwachilengedwe kwa radioactive, momwe zinthu zatsopano zimapangidwira, zadziwika kuyambira kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1919. Mu XNUMX, china chake chomwe chilengedwe chokha chakwanitsa mpaka pano. Ernest Rutherford panthawiyi adalumikizana ndi tinthu tating'onoting'ono ndi zinthu. Pakuyesako, adawona kuti ma protoni adawoneka chifukwa choyatsa ndi mpweya wa nayitrogeni.

Kufotokozera kokha kwa chodabwitsa chinali zomwe zimachitika pakati pa helium nuclei (tinthu ndi phata la isotopu la chinthu ichi) ndi nayitrogeni (7). Zotsatira zake, mpweya ndi haidrojeni zimapangidwa (proton ndiye phata la isotopu yopepuka kwambiri). Maloto a akatswiri a alchem ​​of transmutation akwaniritsidwa. Zaka makumi angapo zotsatira, zidapangidwa zomwe sizinapezeke m'chilengedwe.

Natural radioactive Kukonzekera emitting a-particles sanalinso oyenera Mwaichi (chotchinga Coulomb wa heavy nuclei ndi lalikulu kwambiri kuti tinthu kuwala kuwayandikira). Ma accelerators, omwe amapereka mphamvu zambiri ku nuclei ya isotopi yolemera, adakhala "ng'anjo za alchemical", momwe makolo amasiku ano amayesera kupeza "mfumu yazitsulo" (8).

Nanga bwanji golide? Alchemists nthawi zambiri amagwiritsa ntchito mercury ngati zopangira zake. Ayenera kuvomereza kuti pankhaniyi anali ndi "mphuno" yeniyeni. Zinali kuchokera ku mercury yopangidwa ndi ma neutroni mu choyatsira nyukiliya kuti golide wopangira adapezeka koyamba. Chidutswa chachitsulo chinawonetsedwa mu 1955 ku Geneva Atomic Conference.

Chithunzi 6. Maatomu pamwamba pa golide, wowonekera pachithunzipa mu maikulosikopu yowunikira.

7. Dongosolo loyamba la munthu kusintha zinthu

Nkhani za kupindula kwa akatswiri a sayansi ya sayansi ya zakuthambo ngakhale zinayambitsa chipwirikiti pang'onopang'ono padziko lonse lapansi, koma malipoti atolankhani ochititsa chidwi adatsutsidwa ndi chidziwitso chokhudza mtengo wa miyalayi yomwe imakumbidwa motere - ndi yokwera mtengo kwambiri kuposa golide wachilengedwe. Ma reactors sangalowe m'malo mwa mgodi wamtengo wapatali wachitsulo. Koma isotopi ndi zinthu yokumba opangidwa mwa iwo (zolinga za mankhwala, mphamvu, kafukufuku wa sayansi) ndi zofunika kwambiri kuposa golide.

8. Historic cyclotron synthesizing zinthu zochepa zoyamba pambuyo pa uranium mu periodic table (Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, August 1939)

Kwa owerenga omwe angafune kufufuza nkhani zomwe zalembedwa m'malemba, ndikupangira mndandanda wa nkhani za Bambo Tomasz Sowiński. Anawonekera mu "Young Technics" mu 2006-2010 (pamutu wakuti "Momwe adatulukira"). Zolembazo zikupezekanso patsamba la wolemba pa:.

Cycle"Ndi atomu kwa zaka zambiri» Anayamba ndi chikumbutso kuti zaka zapitazo nthawi zambiri zimatchedwa zaka za atomu. Zachidziwikire, munthu sangalephere kuzindikira zomwe akatswiri a sayansi ya zakuthambo ndi akatswiri a zamankhwala azaka za zana la XNUMX pakupanga zinthu. Komabe, m'zaka zaposachedwa, chidziwitso chokhudza microcosm chikukula mwachangu komanso mwachangu, matekinoloje akupangidwa omwe amalola kuwongolera maatomu ndi mamolekyu. Izi zimatipatsa ufulu wonena kuti m'badwo weniweni wa atomu sunafike.