Ndi atomu kupyola mibadwo - gawo 1

Zaka zana zapitazi nthawi zambiri zimatchedwa "zaka za atomu". Panthawiyo, “njerwa” zimene zimapanga dziko lotizingazo zinatsimikiziridwa potsirizira pake, ndipo mphamvu zogonamo zinamasulidwa. Lingaliro la atomu palokha, komabe, liri ndi mbiri yakale kwambiri, ndipo nkhani ya mbiriyakale ya chidziwitso cha kapangidwe kake sichingayambike mosiyana ndi mawu onena za zakale.

1. Chidutswa cha chithunzi cha Raphael "The School of Athens", chosonyeza Plato (kumanja, wanthanthi ali ndi mawonekedwe a Leonardo da Vinci) ndi Aristotle.

"Kale kale..."

… anthanthi anafika pa mfundo yakuti chilengedwe chonse chimakhala ndi tinthu tating'ono ting'onoting'ono. Inde, pa nthawi imeneyo (ndipo kwa nthawi yaitali) asayansi analibe mwayi kuyesa maganizo awo. Iwo anali kungoyesera kufotokoza zochitika za chilengedwe ndikuyankha funso lakuti: "Kodi zinthu zikhoza kuwola mpaka kalekale, kapena pali mapeto a kugawanikana?«

Mayankho anaperekedwa m’zikhalidwe zosiyanasiyana (makamaka ku India wakale), koma chitukuko cha sayansi chinasonkhezeredwa ndi maphunziro a anthanthi Achigiriki. M'nkhani za tchuthi za chaka chatha za "Young Technician", owerenga adaphunzira za mbiri yakale ya kutulukira zinthu ("Dangers with the Elements", MT 7-9/2014), yomwe idayambanso ku Greece Yakale. Kalelo m'zaka za zana lachisanu ndi chiwiri BC, chigawo chachikulu chomwe chinthu (chinthu, chinthu) chimapangidwira chinafufuzidwa muzinthu zosiyanasiyana: madzi (Thales), mpweya (Anaximenes), moto (Heraclitus) kapena dziko lapansi (Xenophanes).

Empedocles adawayanjanitsa onse, kulengeza kuti zinthu siziri ndi chimodzi, koma ndi zinthu zinayi. Aristotle (zaka za m'ma 1 BC) anawonjezera chinthu china choyenera - ether, chomwe chimadzaza chilengedwe chonse, ndipo adanena kuti akhoza kusintha zinthu. Komano, Dziko Lapansi, lomwe lili pakati pa chilengedwe chonse, linkawonedwa ndi thambo, lomwe nthawi zonse silinasinthe. Chifukwa cha ulamuliro wa Aristotle, chiphunzitso ichi cha kapangidwe ka zinthu ndi zonse zinkaonedwa kuti n'zolondola kwa zaka zoposa zikwi ziwiri. Zinakhala, mwa zina, maziko a chitukuko cha alchemy, chifukwa chake chemistry yokha (XNUMX).

2. Bust of Democritus of Abdera (460-370 BC)

Komabe, lingaliro lina linapangidwanso mofanana. Leucippus (zaka za zana la XNUMX BC) amakhulupirira kuti zinthu zimapangidwa ndi tinthu tating'ono kwambiri kusuntha mopanda kanthu. Malingaliro a filosofi adapangidwa ndi wophunzira wake - Democritus wa Abdera (c. 460-370 BC) (2). Anatcha "ma block" omwe amapanga ma atomu a zinthu (maatomo achi Greek = indivisible). Iye ankatsutsa kuti iwo ndi osagawanika ndi osasintha, ndipo chiwerengero chawo m'chilengedwe chimakhala chosasintha. Ma atomu amayenda mopanda kanthu.

pamene ma atomu iwo amalumikizidwa (ndi dongosolo la mbedza ndi maso) - mitundu yonse ya matupi amapangidwa, ndipo pamene iwo alekanitsidwa wina ndi mzake - matupi akuwonongedwa. Democritus ankakhulupirira kuti pali mitundu yambiri ya maatomu, yosiyana maonekedwe ndi kukula kwake. Makhalidwe a ma atomu amatsimikizira momwe zinthu zilili, mwachitsanzo, uchi wotsekemera umapangidwa ndi maatomu osalala, ndipo viniga wowawasa amapangidwa ndi ma angular; matupi oyera amapanga maatomu osalala, ndipo matupi akuda amapanga maatomu okhala ndi pamwamba.

Momwe zinthu zimaphatikizidwira zimakhudzanso zinthu za zinthu: mu zolimba, ma atomu ali moyandikana kwambiri, ndipo m'matupi ofewa amakhala momasuka. The quintessence ya maganizo a Democritus ndi mawu akuti: "M'malo mwake, pali chabe ndi maatomu, china chirichonse ndi chinyengo."

M’zaka mazana pambuyo pake, malingaliro a Democritus anapangidwa ndi anthanthi otsatizanatsatizana, maumboni ena akupezekanso m’zolemba za Plato. Epicurus - mmodzi wa olowa m'malo - ngakhale amakhulupirira zimenezo ma atomu amakhala ndi tizigawo ting'onoting'ono ("zinthu zoyambirira"). Komabe, chiphunzitso cha atomu cha mpangidwe wa zinthu chinatayika ku maelementi a Aristotle. Mfungulo—imene inali kale panthaŵiyo—inapezeka m’zokumana nazo. Mpaka panali zida zotsimikizira kukhalapo kwa maatomu, kusinthika kwa zinthu kumawonedwa mosavuta.

Mwachitsanzo: madzi akatenthedwa (ozizira ndi onyowa), mpweya udapezedwa (nthunzi yotentha ndi yonyowa), ndipo nthaka idakhalabe pansi pachombo (kuzizira komanso kowuma kwa zinthu zomwe zimasungunuka m'madzi). Zosowa - kutentha ndi kuuma - zinaperekedwa ndi moto, zomwe zimatenthetsa chombocho.

Kusasinthasintha komanso kosalekeza chiwerengero cha ma atomu iwo ankatsutsananso ndi zimene anaona, chifukwa ankaganiza kuti tizilombo toyambitsa matenda tinatuluka “mwachabechabe” mpaka m’zaka za m’ma XNUMX. Malingaliro a Democritus sanapereke maziko aliwonse oyesera alchemical okhudzana ndi kusintha kwazitsulo. Zinalinso zovuta kulingalira ndi kuphunzira mitundu yosiyanasiyana yopanda malire ya maatomu. Chiphunzitso choyambirira chinkawoneka chophweka komanso chomveka bwino chofotokozera dziko lozungulira.

3. Chithunzi cha Robert Boyle (1627–1691) cholembedwa ndi J. Kerseboom.

Kugwa ndi kubadwanso

Kwa zaka mazana ambiri, chiphunzitso cha atomiki chakhala chosiyana ndi sayansi yodziwika bwino. Komabe, iye sanafe potsirizira pake, malingaliro ake anapulumuka, kufikira asayansi a ku Ulaya mu mawonekedwe a matembenuzidwe a filosofi Achiarabu a zolemba zakale. Chidziwitso cha anthu ndi kukula, maziko a chiphunzitso cha Aristotle anayamba kusweka. Dongosolo la heliocentric la Nicolaus Copernicus, kuwunika koyamba kwa supernovae (Tycho de Brache) kochokera paliponse, kupezeka kwa malamulo akuyenda kwa mapulaneti (Johannes Kepler) ndi miyezi ya Jupiter (Galileo) kumatanthauza kuti mu XNUMX ndi XNUMX. kwa zaka mazana ambiri, anthu anasiya kukhala pansi pa thambo mosasintha kuchokera pachiyambi cha dziko . Padziko lapansi, nawonso anali mathero a malingaliro a Aristotle.

Kuyesera kwa zaka mazana ambiri a alchemists sikunabweretse zotsatira zoyembekezeredwa - iwo analephera kutembenuza zitsulo wamba kukhala golidi. Asayansi ochulukirachulukira amakayikira kukhalapo kwa zinthu zokha, ndikukumbukira chiphunzitso cha Democritus.

4. Kuyesera kwa 1654 ndi Magdeburg hemispheres kunatsimikizira kukhalapo kwa vacuum ndi kuthamanga kwa mumlengalenga (mahatchi 16 sangathe kuswa ma hemispheres oyandikana nawo kumene mpweya unatulutsidwa!)

Robert Boyle mu 1661 adapereka tanthauzo lenileni la chinthu chamankhwala ngati chinthu chomwe sichingagawidwe m'zigawo zake ndi kusanthula kwamankhwala (3). Iye ankakhulupirira kuti zinthu zili ndi tinthu ting’onoting’ono, tolimba komanso tosaoneka bwino tosiyanasiyana m’maonekedwe ndi kukula kwake. Kuphatikizana, amapanga mamolekyu a mankhwala omwe amapanga zinthu.

Boyle anatcha tinthu ting'onoting'ono timeneti corpuscles, kapena "corpuscles" (chidule cha liwu lachilatini lakuti corpus = thupi). Malingaliro a Boyle mosakayikira adakhudzidwa ndi kupangidwa kwa pampu ya vacuum (Otto von Guericke, 1650) komanso kukonza kwa mapampu a piston opondereza mpweya. Kukhalapo kwa vacuum ndi kuthekera kosintha mtunda (chifukwa cha kukanikiza) pakati pa tinthu tating'onoting'ono tomwe timachitira umboni mokomera chiphunzitso cha Democritus (4).

Wasayansi wamkulu panthaŵiyo, Sir Isaac Newton, analinso wasayansi ya maatomu. (5). Kutengera malingaliro a Boyle, adapereka lingaliro la kuphatikizika kwa thupi kukhala magulu akulu. M'malo mwa dongosolo lakale la eyelets ndi mbedza, kumangirira kwawo kunali - mwanjira ina - ndi mphamvu yokoka.

5. Chithunzi cha Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), cholembedwa ndi G. Kneller.

Motero, Newton anagwirizanitsa zochitika m’Chilengedwe chonse - mphamvu imodzi inkalamulira kayendedwe ka mapulaneti ndi kamangidwe ka zigawo zing’onozing’ono za zinthu. Wasayansiyo ankakhulupirira kuti kuwala kumakhalanso ndi ma corpuscles.

Lero tikudziwa kuti anali "wolondola theka" - machitidwe ambiri pakati pa ma radiation ndi zinthu amafotokozedwa ndi kutuluka kwa photons.

Chemistry imagwira ntchito

Mpaka pafupifupi kumapeto kwa zaka za zana la XNUMX, maatomu anali mwayi wa akatswiri asayansi. Komabe, kunali kusintha kwa mankhwala komwe kunayambitsidwa ndi Antoine Lavoisier komwe kunapangitsa kuti lingaliro la granular la zinthu livomerezedwe.

Kupezeka kwa dongosolo lovuta la zinthu zakale - madzi ndi mpweya - potsiriza linatsutsa chiphunzitso cha Aristotle. Kumapeto kwa zaka za m’ma XNUMX, lamulo la kusunga unyinji wa anthu ndi chikhulupiriro chakuti n’kosatheka kusintha zinthu zinanso silinayambe kutsutsa. Masikelo akhala zida zokhazikika mu labotale yamankhwala.

6 John Dalton (1766-1844)

Chifukwa cha kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwake, zidadziwika kuti zinthuzo zimaphatikizana, zimapanga mankhwala enaake osakanikirana (mosasamala kanthu za chiyambi chawo - zachilengedwe kapena zopeka - ndi njira ya kaphatikizidwe).

Izi zakhala zomveka bwino ngati tikuganiza kuti chinthu chimakhala ndi magawo osagawanika omwe amapanga chinthu chimodzi. ma atomu. Wopanga chiphunzitso chamakono cha atomu, John Dalton (1766-1844) (6), adatsata njira iyi. Wasayansi wina mu 1808 ananena kuti:

1. Ma atomu ndi osawonongeka komanso osasinthika (izi, ndithudi, zinathetsa kuthekera kwa kusintha kwa alchemical).
2. Zinthu zonse zimapangidwa ndi ma atomu osagawanika.
3. Ma atomu onse a chinthu chopatsidwa ndi ofanana, ndiye kuti, ali ndi mawonekedwe ofanana, misa ndi katundu. Komabe, zinthu zosiyanasiyana zimapangidwa ndi maatomu osiyanasiyana.
4. Pamachitidwe amankhwala, njira yokhayo yolumikizirana maatomu imasintha, momwe mamolekyu amafuta amapangidwira - mumitundu ina (7).

Kutulukira kwina, komwenso kumachokera pakuwona kusintha kwa mankhwala, kunali lingaliro la katswiri wa sayansi ya ku Italy Amadeo Avogadro. Wasayansiyo adatsimikiza kuti milingo yofanana ya mpweya pansi pamikhalidwe yofanana (kupanikizika ndi kutentha) imakhala ndi mamolekyu ofanana. Kupeza kumeneku kunapangitsa kuti zikhale zotheka kukhazikitsa mapangidwe amitundu yambiri yamankhwala ndikuzindikira unyinji ma atomu.

7. Zizindikiro za atomiki zogwiritsidwa ntchito ndi Dalton (New System of Chemical Philosophy, 1808)

8. Matupi a Plato - zizindikiro za ma atomu a "elementi" zakale (Wikipedia, wolemba: Maxim Pe)

Kudula kangati?

Kuwonekera kwa lingaliro la atomu kunagwirizanitsidwa ndi funso lakuti: "Kodi pali mapeto a kugawanika kwa zinthu?". Mwachitsanzo, tiyeni titenge apulo wokhala ndi mainchesi 10 cm ndi mpeni ndikuyamba kudula chipatsocho. Choyamba, mu theka, ndiye theka la apulo mu magawo awiri (ofanana ndi odulidwa apitawo), etc. Patapita nthawi zingapo, ndithudi, tidzatha, koma palibe chomwe chimatilepheretsa kupitiriza kuyesa m'maganizo a atomu imodzi? Chikwi, miliyoni, mwina ochulukirapo?

Titadya apulo wodulidwa (wokoma!), Tiyeni tiyambe kuwerengera (omwe amadziwa lingaliro la kukula kwa geometric adzakhala ndi vuto lochepa). Gawo loyamba lidzatipatsa theka la zipatso ndi makulidwe a 5 cm, kudula kotsatira kudzatipatsa kagawo ndi makulidwe a 2,5 cm, etc. ... 10 omenyedwa! Choncho, “njira” yopita ku dziko la maatomu siitalika.

*) Gwiritsani ntchito mpeni wokhala ndi mpeni woonda kwambiri. M'malo mwake, chinthu choterocho kulibe, koma popeza Albert Einstein mu kafukufuku wake adawona masitima akuyenda pa liwiro la kuwala, timaloledwanso - chifukwa cha kuyesera kwa lingaliro - kupanga lingaliro lomwe lili pamwambapa.

Maatomu a Plato

Plato, m'modzi mwa anthu akale kwambiri, adalongosola maatomu omwe zinthuzo zidapangidwa muzokambirana za Timachos. Mapangidwe awa anali ndi mawonekedwe a polyhedra wokhazikika (zolimba za Plato). Kotero, tetrahedron inali atomu yamoto (monga yaing'ono kwambiri komanso yosasunthika), octahedron inali atomu ya mpweya, ndipo icosahedron inali atomu ya madzi (zolimba zonse zimakhala ndi makoma a makona atatu ofanana). Kiyubu cha mabwalo ndi atomu ya dziko lapansi, ndipo dodecahedron ya pentagons ndi atomu ya chinthu choyenera - ether yakumwamba (8).