zida zolembera

Zida zazikulu zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito polemba ndizochokera ku chilengedwe. Kale, masamba a azitona ndi akanjedza ndi khungwa ankagwiritsidwa ntchito m’mayiko a ku Mediterranean. Ku China, awa anali matabwa ndi mapesi odulidwa ansungwi, ndipo m’maiko aku Asia makungwa a birch. Zida zina zofala zolembera zimagwiritsidwa ntchito, kuphatikizapo nsalu ndi miyala ku Roma. Zolemba zachikumbutso, tombstone ndi zachipembedzo zimazokotedwa pa marble. Ku Mesopotamiya panthawiyo, miyala yadongo inali yotchuka kwambiri. Dziwani momwe zida zolembera zidasinthira pakapita nthawi m'nkhani yomwe ili pansipa. 

nthawi zakale Zida zoyamba zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito polemba ndi zinthu zachilengedwe. Kale, masamba a azitona ndi kanjedza ndi khungwa (kuphatikiza mitengo ya linden ndi elm) amagwiritsidwa ntchito m'maiko aku Mediterranean. Ku China, iwo anali zizindikiro zamatabwa i mapesi ansungwi odulidwandi mayiko ena aku Asia makungwa a birch.

Zosiyanasiyana, wamba zolembera zogwiritsidwa ntchito, mwa zina ku Roma anali chinsalu i mwala. Zolemba zachikumbutso, tombstone ndi zachipembedzo zimazokotedwa pa marble. Ku Mesopotamiya, otchuka kwambiri panthawiyi anali mapiritsi adongo. Kumbali ina, ku Greece, zolembazo zidapangidwa zigoba zadothi.

Zida zolembera asinthanso pakapita nthawi. Kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwawo kunkadalira zinthu zimene zinkagwiritsidwa ntchito panthawiyo. Poyamba, zinthu zolimba zinkagwiritsidwa ntchito nthawi zambiri, choncho zolembazo zinkafunika kujambulidwa, kumetedwa kapena kusindikizidwa. Amagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga miyala cholembera, cholembera kwa kuzokota muzitsulondi bango losabowoka lolembera zizindikiro pamapiritsi adongo. Kwa zipangizo zofewa (gumbwa, nsalu, zikopa ndiyeno pepala) ankagwiritsidwa ntchito mwadongosolo: bango, burashi ndi cholembera.

1. Inki iwiri ya nthawi ya Roma wakale

zakale - zaka zapakati Zinali zofunikira kulemba pa zipangizo zofewa inki (mmodzi). Wakuda unali mtundu womwe unkagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri, koma inki zamitundu zidapangidwanso - makamaka zofiira, komanso zobiriwira, zabuluu, zachikasu kapena zoyera. Ankagwiritsidwa ntchito m’maudindo kapena zilembo zoyambirira za mipukutu ya pamanja kapena m’masainidwe a anthu olemekezeka. Utoto wa golidi ndi siliva unkagwiritsidwanso ntchito polemba zolemba zamtengo wapatali.

Kale ndi Middle Ages, inki ya carbon inkagwiritsidwa ntchito makamaka. Anapangidwa mwa kuphatikiza mpweya wakuda ndi binder (kawirikawiri utomoni, komanso chingamu arabic kapena uchi) kuti apange ufa womwe umasungunuka m'madzi pamene umayenera kugwiritsidwa ntchito. Mtundu wina umatchedwa hibir mu mawonekedwe amadzimadzi, opangidwa kuchokera ku nyemba za jelly. Mchere, chomangira ndi mowa kapena vinyo wosasa anathiridwapo. Kenako inki (zotchedwa inki) sizinali zolimba kwambiri ndipo zinkatha kuwononga zikopa kapena mapepala chifukwa cha dzimbiri.

XNUMXrd Millennium BC Papirus ankadziwika ku Iguputo wakale (2). Zolemba zakale kwambiri zosungidwa pa gumbwa zinayamba cha m’ma 2600 BC. Cha m’zaka za m’ma XNUMX BC, gumbwalo linafika ku Greece, ndipo cha m’ma XNUMX BC linaonekera ku Roma. Kutchuka kwa gumbwa kunachitika m’nthawi ya Agiriki.

Malo opangira gumbwa anali Alexandria waku Egypt kuyambira m'zaka za zana la XNUMX BC, komwe adagawidwa kumayiko ena aku Mediterranean. Zinali zofunikira kwambiri popanga mabuku ndi zolemba (monga mipukutu). Kupanga kwa gumbwa ku Egypt kudapitilira mpaka zaka za zana la XNUMX. Ku Ulaya, gumbwa linagwiritsidwa ntchito kwa nthawi yaitali kwambiri, mpaka pakati pa zaka za m'ma XNUMX, pokonzekera zolemba mu ofesi ya papa. Masiku ano, gumbwa amagwiritsidwa ntchito pongopanga makope enieni kapena ochepera a zolemba zakale zomwe zimagulitsidwa ngati zikumbutso.

3. Cai Lun pa sitampu yaku China yochokera mu 1962

VIII vpne - II vpne Malinga ndi mbiri yaku China, pepala linapangidwa ku China ndi Cai Luna (3), nduna ya m’bwalo la Mfumu He Di ya m’banja lachifumu la Han. Kalalikiyo anayesa makungwa a mitengo, silika ngakhale maukonde ophera nsomba mpaka anapeza njira yoyenera (mapepala opangidwa ndi manja) pogwiritsa ntchito nsanza za silika ndi nsalu.

Komabe, zotsatira za kafukufuku wofukula m'mabwinja zimasonyeza kuti mapepala ankadziwika kale, makamaka m'zaka za m'ma 751 BC, kotero n'kutheka kuti Cai Lun anapanga njira yokhayo yopangira mapepala ambiri. Pambuyo pa Nkhondo ya Mtsinje wa Talas mu XNUMX, Aarabu adalanda opanga mapepala aku China, zomwe zidapangitsa mapepala kukhala otchuka m'maiko achiarabu. Mapepala amapangidwa kutengera kupezeka kwa zida - incl. hemp, nsanza za bafuta kapena ngakhale silika. Anabwera ku Ulaya kudzera ku Spain atagonjetsedwa ndi Arabu.

II wpne - VIII wne Chakumapeto kwa nthawi zakale, gumbwa linasinthidwa pang'onopang'ono galasi, yoyenerera kwambiri mpangidwe watsopano wa bukhu limene codex yasanduka. Zikopa (membrane, zikopa, charta parchment) amapangidwa kuchokera ku chikopa cha nyama. Linagwiritsidwa ntchito kale nyengo yathu isanafike ku Egypt (Bukhu la Akufa lochokera ku Cairo), koma silinagwiritsidwe ntchito mofala kumeneko.

Komabe, kale m'zaka za zana la XNUMX, idapikisana ndi gumbwa ndipo idakhala chinthu chachikulu cholembera. M'zaka za zana la XNUMX, adafika ku Frankish Chancellery. Idafalikira m'zaka za zana la XNUMX, ndipo idalowa m'maofesi a apapa m'zaka za zana la XNUMX. Njira yopangira ndi dzinali mwina imalumikizidwa ndi mzinda wachi Greek wa Pergamon, komwe zikopa sizinapangidwe, koma kupanga kwake kunakula kwambiri.

Chabwino IV awo Amakhala otchuka polemba pazikopa (kenako komanso pamapepala). nthenga ya mbalame makamaka zimachokera ku chinsalu kapena atsekwe. Cholemberacho chimayenera kukhala chakuthwa bwino (choonda ndi chakuthwa kapena chophwanyika) ndikumangirira kumapeto. Goose quill ndiye chida chachikulu cholembera mpaka zaka za zana la XNUMX.

chakale - 1567 История pensulo nthawi zambiri zimayamba ndi zakale. Dzina la Chipolishi limachokera ku lead yomwe idagwiritsidwa ntchito polemba ku Egypt, Greece ndi Roma wakale. Mpaka zaka za m'ma 1567, akatswiri aluso a ku Ulaya ankagwiritsa ntchito ndodo za lead, zinki, kapena siliva kuti apange zithunzi zotuwa zowala zotchedwa silverpoints. Mu XNUMX, wa ku Switzerland, Konrad Gesner, adalongosola ndodo yolembera ndi chotengera chamatabwa m'mabuku a zinthu zakale. Zaka zitatu m’mbuyomo, ku Borrowdale, ku England, kunapezeka graphite yeniyeni, imene posakhalitsa inagwiritsidwa ntchito m’malo mwa mtovu, koma dzina la pensulo linalibe.

1636 Wopanga waku Germany Daniel Schwenter adapanga zomwe zidayika maziko a zolembera zamasupe zamakono. Kunali kusinthidwa mwaluso kwa mayankho omwe adagwiritsidwa ntchito kale - mumtengo wamatabwa wokhala ndi nsonga yakuthwa Nthenga za mbalamezo zinali ndi inki zambiri. Cholembera chasiliva chokhala ndi inki mkati, cha ma franc 10, chinafotokozedwa koyamba ku Paris ndi apaulendo awiri achi Dutch mu 1656.

1714 Katswiri wa ku Britain Henry Mill adalandira chilolezo cha mapangidwe a chipangizocho, chomwe chinali phata la zomwe zinapangidwa pambuyo pake komanso makina osindikizira abwino.

1780-1828 Mzungu Samuel Harrison amapanga chitsanzo cha cholembera chachitsulo. Mu 1803, wopanga waku Britain Wise waku London adalowa m'malo ndi patent, koma chifukwa cha kukwera mtengo kwa kupanga, sikunagwiritsidwe ntchito kwambiri. Zinthu zinasintha cha m'ma 1822, pamene anayamba kupangidwa ndi makina chifukwa cha Harrison yemweyo amene anapanga chitsanzo zaka 42 m'mbuyomo. Mu 1828, William Joseph Gillott, William Mitchell, ndi James Stephen Perry adapanga njira yopangira nsabwe zamphamvu, zotsika mtengo (4). Chifukwa cha iwo, oposa theka la nsonga zolembera zomwe zinapangidwa padziko lapansi zinapangidwa.

4. Nthenga za Gillot zazaka za zana la khumi ndi zisanu ndi zinayi

1858 Hymen Lipman patentuje pensulo yokhala ndi chofufutira akhala mbali imodzi. Wamalonda wina dzina lake Joseph Reckendorfer adaneneratu kuti zomwe zidapangidwazo zitha kugundidwa ndikugula patent kuchokera kwa Lipman. Tsoka ilo, mu 1875 Khothi Lalikulu la ku United States linachotsa chilolezo ichi, kotero Reckendorfer sanapeze ndalama zambiri.

1867 Kwa Mlengi wa zochita makina osindikizira Amereka amaganiziridwa Christopher Latham Sholes (5), yemwe adapanga chitsanzo chake choyamba chothandizira. Chipangizo chimene anamangacho chinali ndi makiyi, tepi yoviikidwa inki, ndi mbale yachitsulo yopingasa yokhala ndi pepala pamwamba pake. Makinawo anayambika ndi kukanikiza ma pedals, chifukwa Scholes ankagwiritsa ntchito galimoto yofanana ndi makina osokera a nthawiyo. Sholes adayamba kupanga mu 1873 mogwirizana ndi fakitale yaku America yaku Remington. Ngakhale pamenepo, mawonekedwe a kiyibodi a QWERTY omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito mpaka pano adapangidwa, omwe adapangidwa kuti asatseke mafonti.

5. Zozokotedwa ndi Henry Mill ndi taipi yoyambirira yomwe adapanga.

1877 ndi zovomerezeka makina pensulo ndi dongosolo lofanana ndi lamakono - ndi ndodo yokhazikika mu masiponji otsekedwa ndi kasupe.

6. Chithunzi cha patent ya Waterman

1884 Patents woyamba Chitsime cholembera zidaperekedwa kale cha m'ma 1830, koma zinali zosatheka - inkiyo mwina idatuluka mwachangu kapena sanatuluke konse. Cholembera chamakono cha kasupe monga tikuchidziwira lero, chokhala ndi inki yosinthika, chinapangidwa ndi wothandizira inshuwalansi waku America Lewis Edson Waterman (6).

Woyambitsa Waterman adapanga njira ya "channel feed" yomwe imalepheretsa kutsekeka kwa inki powongolera ma inki. Zaka khumi pambuyo pake, cholemberacho chinakonzedwa bwino ndi George Parker wochokera ku USA, yemwe adamanga dongosolo lomwe limachotsa mabala, pogwiritsa ntchito njira yothetsera vutoli. inki ikuchucha pa nib.

1908-29 American Walter Sheaffer anali woyamba kugwiritsa ntchito lever kumbali yake kudzaza cholembera - inkiyo idayamwa mkati mwa cholembera kupyola mu nib. Posakhalitsa adawonekera mapampu a inki ya rabaraanaika mkati cholembera, ndi m'malo galasi makatiriji. Mu 1929, fakitale ya ku Germany ya Pelikan inapanga makina opangira inki.

1914 James Fields Smathers amapanga cholembera chamagetsi chamagetsi. Mataipi amagetsi adalowa pamsika cha m'ma 1920.

1938 Wojambula waku Hungary komanso mtolankhani László Bíró (7) amayambitsa cholembera. Nkhondo itatha, anathawa kwawo n’kukafika ku Argentina, kumene iye ndi m’bale wake George (wasayansi) anakonza zopangazo. Kupanga koyamba kudayamba panthawi yankhondo ku Buenos Aires. Mu 1944, Bíró adagulitsa magawo ake kwa m'modzi mwa omwe adagawana nawo omwe adayamba kupanga pamlingo waukulu.

7. Laszlo Biro ndi Vinalazek wake

Zaka 40-50. Zaka za zana la makumi awiri Yoyamba zolembera anali nthenga zosinthidwa. M’malo mwa nthiti, iwo anali ndi mtundu wa nyali umene inkiyo inkatha kuyendamo. Sidney Rosenthal wochokera ku USA amaonedwa kuti ndiye tate wa zomwe zinapangidwa. Mu 1953, adaphatikiza katiriji ya inki ndi chingwe cha ubweya wa ubweya ndi nsonga yolembera. Anatcha zonse "chizindikiro chamatsenga", ndiko kuti cholembera chamatsenga, chifukwa chimalola kujambula pafupifupi pamalo aliwonse (8).

CHABWINO. 1960-2011 Kukhudzidwa kwa America IBM ikukula mtundu watsopano wa mataipi, m'mene mafonti oikidwa pazitsulo zosiyana anasinthidwa ndi mutu wozungulira. Pambuyo pake, adalowa m'malo mwa anzawo amakanika. M'badwo wotsiriza wamataipi (cha m'ma 1990) anali ndi kuthekera kosunga ndikusintha pambuyo pake. Kenako makinawo analoŵedwa m’malo ndi makompyuta okhala ndi akonzi kapena ma processor a mawu ndi osindikiza. Fakitale yomaliza ya makina ojambulira idatsekedwa mu Marichi 2011 ku India.

Mitundu ya zida zolembera

I. Zida zodziyimira pawokha - Amakhala ndi ntchito yobadwa nawo m'lingaliro lakuti moyo wawo wothandiza umagwirizana ndi kukhalapo kwawo.

1. Popanda kugwiritsa ntchito utoto. Zitsanzo zakale kwambiri zodziwika bwino zolembera popanda kugwiritsa ntchito utoto zinapangidwa mwa kudula malo ophwanyika ndi chida cholimba. Chitsanzo ndi zolemba za ku China za jiaguwen zozokotedwa m’zigoba za akamba. Anthu akale a ku Sumeriya ndi amene anawaloŵa m’malo, monga Ababulo, analemba zolemba zawo za cuneiform mwa kukanikiza cholembera cha makona atatu m’mapale adongo ofewa, n’kupanga zilembo zooneka ngati mphonje.
2. Pogwiritsa ntchito utoto. Cholembera choyambirira cha "pensulo" chinali cholembera chotsogola chogwiritsidwa ntchito ndi Aroma akale omwe adachigwiritsanso ntchito polemba pamitengo kapena pa gumbwa, ndikusiya timizere takuda pomwe chitsulo chofewa chimapaka pamwamba. Ambiri amakono «mapensulo» ndi sanali poizoni pachimake wa imvi-wakuda graphite wothira dongo mosiyanasiyana mosiyanasiyana kukwaniritsa kugwirizana. Zida zosavuta zamtunduwu zimaphatikizapo choko choyera kapena makala akuda, omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi ojambula lero. Gululi limaphatikizanso makrayoni amatabwa ndi makrayoni a sera, omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito makamaka ndi ana. Chodziwika bwino cha zidazi ndikuti kugwiritsa ntchito kwawo kumagwirizana kwambiri ndi kukhalapo kwawo kwakuthupi.

II. Zida zothandizira - Izi zimafuna utoto wowonjezera kuti ulembedwe ndipo sungagwiritsidwe ntchito ngati 'chopanda kanthu'.

1. nthenga

   a) kumizidwa ndi capillary kanthu. Poyambirira, zolembera zidapangidwa ndi kusema zinthu zachilengedwe, zomwe, chifukwa cha capillary, zimatha kusunga kasungidwe kakang'ono ka inki yolembera. Zosungirazi, komabe, zinali zazing'ono ndipo zinkafuna kuti cholemberacho aziviika nthawi ndi nthawi mu inki yakunja kuti adzazenso. N'chimodzimodzinso ndi zitsulo zomiza zitsulo, ngakhale njira zina zatha kugwira inki yochulukirapo kuposa nibs zachilengedwe.

   b) zolembera. Amakhala ndi cholumikizira cha nib, chipinda chosungiramo inki, ndi nyumba yakunja. Kutengera kapangidwe ka cholembera, thanki ya inki imatha kudzazidwanso mwachindunji ndi kukakamiza kuchokera kunja, kuyamwa, kapena kugwiritsa ntchito makatiriji odzazidwanso. Mitundu ina yokha ya inki ingagwiritsidwe ntchito mu kasupe cholembera kuti musatseke makinawo.

   c) Zolembera ndi zolembera. Cholemberacho chimakhala ndi thupi ndi chubu chodzaza ndi inki wandiweyani ndikumathera cholembera. Mpira wokhala ndi mainchesi pafupifupi 1 mm umayikidwa mu chotengera. Pamene mukulemba, mpirawo umadutsa papepala, ndikugawa inki mofanana. Mpira umakhala muzitsulo, zomwe zimalola kuti uzizungulira momasuka ndikuletsa kugwa. Pali kadanga kakang'ono pakati pa mpira ndi soketi kuti inki ikhetsedwe. Danga ndi laling'ono kwambiri kotero kuti capillary action imasunga inki mkati pamene cholembera sichikugwiritsidwa ntchito. Cholembera (komanso: cholembera, cholembera, cholembera) ndi mtundu wa cholembera chokhala ndi porous core choviikidwa mu inki. Cholemberacho chimakhalanso ndi porous, kulola inki kudontha pang'onopang'ono pamwamba pa pepala kapena zoulutsira zina.

2. Mapensulo amakanika

   Mosiyana ndi pensulo yamatabwa imene anthu amapangira pozungulira pachimake cholimba cha graphite, pensulo yopangidwa ndi makina imadyetsa kachidutswa kakang'ono ka graphite kunsonga kwake.

3. Maburashi

   Mwachitsanzo, zilembo za Chitchaina zimalembedwa ndi burashi yomwe imadziwika kuti ndi yabwino komanso yosalala. Burashi imasiyana ndi cholembera kuti, mmalo mwa nib yolimba, burashi imakhala ndi zofewa. Ma bristles amagwedezeka pang'onopang'ono pa pepala ndikukakamiza kokwanira. Makampani ena tsopano akupanga "zolembera za brush", zomwe pambaliyi zimakhala zofanana ndi cholembera cha kasupe, chokhala ndi chosungira chamkati cha inki. 

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