Zitsulo Zachitsulo Gawo 3 - Zina Zonse

Pambuyo pa lithiamu, yomwe ikugwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri pazachuma zamakono, ndi sodium ndi potaziyamu, zomwe zili pakati pa zinthu zofunika kwambiri pamakampani ndi zamoyo, nthawi yafika yazinthu zina zamchere. Patsogolo pathu pali rubidium, cesium ndi franc.

Zinthu zitatu zomaliza ndizofanana kwambiri, ndipo panthawi imodzimodziyo zimakhala ndi zinthu zofanana ndi potaziyamu ndipo pamodzi ndi kupanga gulu laling'ono lotchedwa potaziyamu. Popeza simungathe kupanga zoyesera zilizonse za rubidium ndi cesium, muyenera kukhutira ndi zomwe zimachita ngati potaziyamu komanso kuti mankhwala ake ali ndi kusungunuka kofanana ndi mankhwala ake.

1. Abambo a spectroscopy: Robert Wilhelm Bunsen (1811-99) kumanzere, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-87) kumanja

Kupita patsogolo koyambirira kwa spectroscopy

Chodabwitsa chokongoletsa lawi ndi zinthu zina chinali kudziwika ndipo chimagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga zozimitsa moto kalekale asanatulutsidwe ku ufulu. Kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 1859, asayansi adaphunzira mizere yowoneka bwino yomwe imawoneka padzuwa komanso yotulutsidwa ndi mankhwala otenthetsera. Mu XNUMX, akatswiri awiri asayansi aku Germany - Robert Bunsen i Gustav Kirchhoff - adapanga chipangizo choyesera kuwala kotulutsa (1). Chowonera choyamba chinali ndi mawonekedwe osavuta: chinali ndi prism yomwe imalekanitsa kuwala kukhala mizere yowoneka bwino komanso chojambula ndi lens kuti awonere (2). Kufunika kwa ma spectroscope pakuwunika mankhwala kudawonedwa nthawi yomweyo: chinthucho chimasweka kukhala maatomu pa kutentha kwakukulu kwa lawi lamoto, ndipo izi zimatulutsa mizere yodziwika yokha.

2. G. Kirchhoff pa spectroscope

3. Metallic cesium (http://images-of-elements.com)

Bunsen ndi Kirchhoff adayamba kafukufuku wawo ndipo patatha chaka adatulutsa matani 44 amadzi amchere kuchokera ku kasupe ku Durkheim. Mizere inkawoneka m'madontho amatope omwe sakanatheka kuti agwirizane ndi chinthu chilichonse chomwe chimadziwika panthawiyo. Bunsen (iyenso anali katswiri wa zamankhwala) analekanitsa kloridi ya chinthu chatsopano kuchokera ku dothi, ndipo anapereka dzina kwa chitsulo chomwe chili mmenemo. Zamgululi kutengera mizere yolimba ya buluu mu sipekitiramu yake (Chilatini = buluu) (3).

Patapita miyezi ingapo, kale mu 1861, asayansi anafufuza sipekitiramu mchere mwatsatanetsatane ndipo anapeza kukhalapo kwa chinthu china mmenemo. Iwo anatha kudzipatula kloride ndi kudziwa ake atomiki misa. Popeza kuti mizere yofiira inkawoneka bwino mu sipekitiramu, chitsulo chatsopano cha lithiamu chinatchulidwa zamanyazi (kuchokera ku Chilatini = chofiyira chakuda) (4). Kupezeka kwa zinthu ziwiri kudzera mu kupenda kowoneka bwino kunakhutiritsa akatswiri a zamankhwala ndi asayansi. M’zaka zotsatira, ma spectroscopy anakhala chimodzi mwa zida zazikulu zofufuzira, ndipo zomwe atulukira zinagwa ngati cornucopia.

4. Metal rubidium (http://images-of-elements.com)

Rubid sichimapanga mchere wake, ndipo cesium ndi imodzi yokha (5). Zonse ziwiri. Pamwamba pa Dziko Lapansi pali 0,029% rubidium (malo a 17 pa mndandanda wazinthu zambiri) ndi 0,0007% cesium (malo a 39). Sikuti zinthu zamoyo zimasintha, koma zomera zina zimangosankha kusungira rubidium, monga fodya ndi njuchi. Kuchokera pamawonedwe a physicochemical, zitsulo zonsezo ndi "potaziyamu pa steroids": ngakhale zofewa komanso zosasunthika, komanso zowonjezereka (mwachitsanzo, zimayaka zokha mumlengalenga, ngakhale kuchitapo kanthu ndi madzi ndi kuphulika).

через ndicho chinthu cha "chitsulo" kwambiri (mu mankhwala, osati m'lingaliro lachidziwitso). Monga tanenera kale, katundu wa mankhwala awo ndi ofanana ndi ofanana potassium mankhwala.

5 Pollucite Ndi Yekhayo Cesium Mineral (USGS)

zitsulo rubidium ndipo cesium imapezeka mwa kuchepetsa mankhwala awo ndi magnesium kapena calcium mu vacuum. Popeza amangofunika kupanga mitundu ina ya ma cell a photovoltaic (kuwala kochitika mosavuta kumatulutsa ma elekitironi kuchokera pamalo awo), kupanga kwapachaka kwa rubidium ndi cesium kumatengera mazana a kilogalamu. Mankhwala awo sagwiritsidwanso ntchito kwambiri.

Monga potaziyamu, Imodzi mwa isotopu ya rubidium ndi radioactive. Rb-87 ili ndi theka la moyo wa zaka 50 biliyoni, choncho ma radiation ndi otsika kwambiri. Isotope iyi imagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga miyala. Cesium ilibe ma isotopi achilengedwe omwe amapezeka mwachilengedwe, koma CS-137 ndi chimodzi mwa zinthu za fission wa uranium mu nyukiliya reactors. Amasiyanitsidwa ndi ndodo zamafuta chifukwa isotopu iyi yakhala ikugwiritsidwa ntchito ngati gwero la radiation ya gamma, mwachitsanzo, kuwononga zotupa za khansa.

Kulemekeza France

6. Wotulukira chinenero cha Chifalansa - Marguerite Perey (1909-75)

Mendeleev anali ataoneratu kale kukhalapo kwa lithiamu zitsulo zolemera kuposa cesium ndipo anaupatsa dzina ntchito. Akatswiri a zamankhwala ayang'ana mu mchere wina wa lithiamu chifukwa, monga wachibale wawo, ayenera kukhalapo. Kangapo zimawoneka kuti zidapezeka, ngakhale mongoyerekeza, koma sizinawonekere.

Kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m’ma 87, zinaonekeratu kuti chinthu cha 1914 chinali ndi radioactive. Mu 227, akatswiri a sayansi ya ku Austria anali pafupi kupeza. S. Meyer, W. Hess, ndi F. Panet adawona cheza chofooka cha alpha kuchokera ku actinium-89 (kuphatikiza ndi tinthu tambiri ta beta tobisika). Popeza nambala ya atomiki ya actinium ndi 87, ndipo kutulutsa kwa tinthu tating'ono ta alpha kumachitika chifukwa cha "kuchepa" kwa chinthucho kukhala malo awiri patebulo la periodic, isotopu yokhala ndi nambala ya atomiki 223 ndi nambala ya XNUMX iyenera kukhala tinthu tating'onoting'ono ta alpha. mphamvu zofanana, komabe (mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya tinthu ting'onoting'ono mumlengalenga imayesedwa molingana ndi mphamvu zawo) imatumizanso isotopu ya protactinium, asayansi ena amati kuipitsidwa kwa mankhwalawa.

Posakhalitsa nkhondo inayambika ndipo zonse zinaiwalika. M'zaka za m'ma 30, ma particle accelerators anapangidwa ndipo zinthu zoyamba zoyamba zinapezedwa, monga astatium yomwe inali kuyembekezera kwa nthawi yaitali ndi nambala ya atomiki 85. Pankhani ya chigawo cha 87, mlingo wa teknoloji wa nthawiyo sunalole kupeza kuchuluka kofunikira zakuthupi za kaphatikizidwe. Katswiri wa sayansi ya ku France anapambana mosayembekezeka Marguerite Perey, wophunzira wa Maria Sklodowska-Curie (6). Iye, monga aku Austrian kotala la zaka zana zapitazo, adaphunzira kuwonongeka kwa actinium-227. Kupita patsogolo kwaukadaulo kunapangitsa kuti athe kupeza kukonzekera koyera, ndipo nthawi ino palibe amene adakayikira kuti adadziwika pomaliza pake. Wofufuzayo anamutcha dzina French polemekeza dziko lakwawo. Element 87 inali yomaliza kupezeka mu mchere, wotsatira adapezeka mwachinyengo.

French amapangidwa mu nthambi ya mbali ya mndandanda wa radioactive, mu ndondomeko ndi otsika mphamvu ndipo, Komanso, ndi yaifupi kwambiri. Isotopu yamphamvu kwambiri yomwe Akazi a Perey adapeza, Fr-223, ali ndi theka la moyo wa mphindi 20 zokha (kutanthauza kuti 1/8 yokha ya kuchuluka koyambirira imatsalira pakatha ola limodzi). Zawerengedwa kuti dziko lonse lapansi lili ndi pafupifupi magalamu 30 okha a franc (kufanana kumakhazikitsidwa pakati pa isotopu yowola ndi isotopu yomwe yangopangidwa kumene).

Ngakhale kuti gawo lowoneka la mankhwala a franc silinapezeke, katundu wake adaphunzira, ndipo adapezeka kuti ndi gulu la alkaline. Mwachitsanzo, perchlorate ikawonjezeredwa ku yankho lomwe lili ndi ayoni a franc ndi potaziyamu, mpweyawo umakhala wotulutsa ma radio, osati yankho. Khalidweli limatsimikizira kuti FrClO₄ kusungunuka pang'ono (kumayenda ndi KClO₄), ndipo katundu wa francium ndi ofanana ndi potaziyamu.

France, angakhale bwanji ...

… Ngati ine ndikanakhoza kutenga chitsanzo cha izo zooneka ndi maso? Zoonadi, zofewa ngati sera, ndipo mwina ndi golide wagolide (cesium pamwamba pake ndi yofewa kwambiri komanso yachikasu). Ikhoza kusungunuka pa 20-25 ° C ndi kusungunuka mozungulira 650 ° C (kuyerekeza kutengera deta yachigawo chapitacho). Komanso, izo zikanakhala kwambiri mankhwala yogwira. Choncho, ziyenera kusungidwa popanda mpweya ndi chinyezi komanso mu chidebe chomwe chimateteza ku radiation. Zingakhale zofunikira kufulumira ndi kuyesa, chifukwa mu maola ochepa sipadzakhala pafupifupi French palibe.

Lifiyamu wolemekezeka

Mukukumbukira ma pseudo-halogens kuchokera ku kuzungulira kwa halogen chaka chatha? Awa ndi ma ion omwe amakhala ngati anions monga Cl^- kapena ayi^-. Izi zikuphatikizapo, mwachitsanzo, cyanides CN^- ndi ma SCN moles^-, kupanga mchere wokhala ndi kusungunuka kofanana ndi wa gulu 17 anions.

Anthu aku Lithuania alinso ndi otsatira, omwe ndi ammonium ion NH. ₄ ⁺ - chopangidwa ndi kusungunuka kwa ammonia m'madzi (yankho lake ndi lamchere, ngakhale ndi lofooka kuposa momwe zilili ndi alkali zitsulo hydroxides) komanso momwe amachitira ndi ma acid. Ion imagwiranso ntchito ndi zitsulo zolemera za alkali, ndipo ubale wake wapamtima ndi potaziyamu, mwachitsanzo, ndi wofanana ndi kukula kwa potaziyamu ndipo nthawi zambiri amalowetsa K + muzinthu zake zachilengedwe. Zitsulo za Lithiamu ndizokhazikika kwambiri kuti sizingapezeke ndi electrolysis yamadzi amchere amchere ndi ma hydroxides. Pogwiritsa ntchito mercury electrode, njira yachitsulo mu mercury (amalgam) imapezeka. Ammonium ion ndi yofanana kwambiri ndi zitsulo zamchere kotero kuti imapanganso amalgam.

Mu ndondomeko ya kusanthula kwa L.magnesium ion zipangizo ndi omaliza kupezedwa. Chifukwa chake ndi kusungunuka kwabwino kwa ma chlorides, sulfates ndi sulfide, zomwe zikutanthauza kuti sizimatsika ndi zomwe zidapangidwa kale zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pozindikira kupezeka kwa zitsulo zolemera mu zitsanzo. Ngakhale mchere wa ammonium umakhalanso wosungunuka kwambiri, umapezeka kumayambiriro kwa kusanthula, chifukwa supirira kutentha ndi kutuluka kwa njira zothetsera (zimawola mosavuta ndi kutulutsidwa kwa ammonia). Njirayi mwina imadziwika kwa aliyense: yankho la maziko amphamvu (NaOH kapena KOH) amawonjezeredwa ku chitsanzo, chomwe chimayambitsa kutulutsidwa kwa ammonia.

Sam ammonia zimazindikirika ndi fungo kapena kugwiritsa ntchito pepala lonyowa padziko lonse lapansi lonyowa ndi madzi pakhosi la chubu choyesera. NH gasi₃ amasungunuka m'madzi ndikupanga yankho kukhala alkaline ndikutembenuza pepala kukhala buluu.

7. Kuzindikira ma ion ammonium: kumanzere, mzere woyesera umasanduka buluu pansi pa ammonia yotulutsidwa, kumanja, zotsatira zabwino za mayeso a Nessler.

Mukazindikira ammonia mothandizidwa ndi fungo, muyenera kukumbukira malamulo ogwiritsira ntchito mphuno mu labotale. Chifukwa chake, musatsamira pachotengeracho, wongolerani mpweyawo kwa inu ndi chiwongolero cha dzanja lanu ndipo musapume mpweya "chifuwa chodzaza", koma lolani kuti fungo la pawiri lifike pamphuno mwanu palokha.

Kusungunuka kwa mchere wa ammonium n'kofanana ndi mankhwala a potaziyamu ofanana, choncho zingakhale zokopa kukonzekera ammonium perchlorate NH.₄ClO₄ ndi chigawo chovuta chokhala ndi cobalt (kuti mudziwe zambiri, onani gawo lapitalo). Komabe, njira zomwe zaperekedwa sizoyenera kuzindikira ammonia ndi ammonium ion pang'onopang'ono pachitsanzo. M'ma laboratories, Nessler's reagent imagwiritsidwa ntchito pazifukwa izi, zomwe zimatsitsa kapena kusintha mtundu ngakhale mutakhala ndi NH.₃ (7).

Komabe, ndikulangizani kwambiri kuti musayese kuyesa kunyumba, chifukwa m'pofunika kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala oopsa a mercury.

Dikirani mpaka mutakhala mu labotale ya akatswiri moyang'aniridwa ndi mlangizi. Chemistry ndi yosangalatsa, koma - kwa iwo omwe sadziwa kapena osasamala - zingakhale zoopsa.

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