The US Constitution and Information Processing - The Extraordinary Life of Herman Hollerith
Vuto lonselo linayamba mu 1787 ku Philadelphia, pamene madera opanduka omwe kale anali a British adayesa kupanga Constitution ya US. Panali mavuto ndi izi - maiko ena anali akuluakulu, ena ang'onoang'ono, ndipo zinali zokhuza kukhazikitsa malamulo oyenera oimira awo. Mu July (pambuyo pa miyezi ingapo ya kukangana) anagwirizana mgwirizano, wotchedwa "Great Compromise". Chimodzi mwa ziganizo za mgwirizanowu chinali lamulo lakuti zaka 10 zilizonse m'madera onse a US kuwerengera mwatsatanetsatane chiwerengero cha anthu, kutengera chiwerengero cha mayiko omwe akuyimira m'mabungwe a boma.
Panthawiyo, sizinkawoneka ngati zovuta kwambiri. Kalembera woyamba wotere mu 1790 anali nzika 3, ndipo mndandanda wa kalembera unali ndi mafunso ochepa chabe - panalibe zovuta pakuwerengera zotsatira. Zowerengera zidathana ndi izi mosavuta.
Posakhalitsa zinadziwika kuti chiyambi chabwino ndi choipa. Chiwerengero cha anthu aku US chinakula mwachangu: kuchokera ku kalembera kupita ku kalembera pafupifupi 35% ndendende. Mu 1860, nzika zopitilira 31 miliyoni zidawerengedwa - ndipo nthawi yomweyo mawonekedwewo adayamba kuphulika kwambiri kotero kuti Congress idayenera kuchepetsa kuchuluka kwa mafunso omwe amaloledwa kufunsidwa ku 100 kuti awonetsetse kuti mafunsowo atha kukonzedwa. mndandanda wa data yolandilidwa. Kuwerengera kwa 1880 kudakhala kovutirapo ngati maloto owopsa: ndalamazo zidapitilira 50 miliyoni, ndipo zidatenga zaka 7 kuti afotokoze zotsatira zake. Mndandanda wotsatira, womwe unakhazikitsidwa mu 1890, unali wosatheka kale pansi pazimenezi. Constitution ya US, chikalata chopatulika kwa anthu aku America, ili pachiwopsezo chachikulu.
Vutoli lidadziwika kale ndipo adayesetsanso kulithetsa kuyambira m'ma 1870, pomwe Mtsamunda wina Seaton adapereka chilolezo pa chipangizo chomwe chidapangitsa kuti chizitha kufulumizitsa pang'ono ntchito yowerengera popanga kachidutswa kakang'ono kake. Ngakhale zotsatira zochepa kwambiri - Seaton adalandira $ 25 kuchokera ku Congress pa chipangizo chake, chomwe panthawiyo chinali chachikulu.
Zaka zisanu ndi zinayi pambuyo pa kupangidwa kwa Seaton, anamaliza maphunziro ake pa yunivesite ya Columbia, mnyamata wofunitsitsa kuchita bwino, mwana wa munthu wina wa ku Austria yemwe anasamukira ku United States dzina lake Herman Hollerith, wobadwa mu 1860. anali ndi ndalama zochititsa chidwi - mothandizidwa ndi kafukufuku wosiyanasiyana. Kenako adayamba kugwira ntchito ku Massachusetts Institute of Technology yodziwika bwino ngati mphunzitsi waukadaulo wamakina, kenako adagwira ntchito kuofesi ya federal patent. Apa anayamba kuganiza za kukonza ntchito kalembera, amene mosakayikira chinachititsa zinthu ziwiri: kukula kwa umafunika Seaton ndi chakuti mpikisano unalengezedwa kwa makina obwera 1890 kalembera. Wopambana pa mpikisanowu akhoza kudalira chuma chambiri.
Zdj. 1 German Hollerit
Malingaliro a Hollerith anali atsopano ndipo, motero, adagunda mwambi wa bullseye. Choyamba, anaganiza zoyatsa magetsi, omwe palibe amene ankawaganizirapo. Lingaliro lachiwiri linali lopeza tepi ya pepala yopangidwa mwapadera, yomwe inkafunika kupukuta pakati pa zolumikizana ndi makina ndipo motero imafupikitsidwa pamene kunali kofunika kutumiza kuwerengera ku chipangizo china. Lingaliro lomaliza poyamba lidakhala lotero. Sizinali zophweka kuthyola tepiyo, tepiyo "yokondedwa" kuti iwonongeke, kodi kuyenda kwake kunayenera kukhala kosalala kwambiri?
Woyambitsayo, ngakhale atakumana ndi zopinga zoyamba, sanataye mtima. Anasintha kansaluko n’kuikamo makadi a pepala ochindikala amene kale ankagwiritsidwa ntchito poluka, ndipo chimenecho chinali maziko a nkhaniyo.
Mapu a lingaliro lake? miyeso yololera kwambiri ya 13,7 ndi 7,5 cm? poyamba munali malo oboola 204. Kuphatikizika koyenera kwa ma perforations kumayankha mafunso pa kalembera; izi zidatsimikizira kuti kulemberana makalata: khadi limodzi - funso limodzi la kalembera. Hollerith anatulukiranso—kapena kuti anakonza bwino kwambiri—chipangizo chokhomerera khadi yoteroyo mopanda cholakwika, ndipo mwamsanga anakonza khadi lokhalo, n’kuwonjezera chiwerengero cha mabowo kufika pa 240. • Yemwe idakonza zomwe zidawerengedwa kuchokera pakubowola ndikusankhanso makhadi omwe adalumphidwa m'mapaketi okhala ndi mawonekedwe ofanana. Chifukwa chake, posankha, mwachitsanzo, okhudzana ndi amuna pamakadi onse, amatha kusanjidwa motsatira njira monga, kunena, ntchito, maphunziro, ndi zina.
Kupangidwa - zovuta zonse zamakina, zomwe pambuyo pake zimatchedwa "kuwerengera ndi kusanthula" - zidakonzeka mu 1884. Kuti apange iwo kuposa pepala, Hollerith adabwereka $2500, adamupangira zida zoyesera, ndipo pa Seputembara 23 chaka chimenecho adatulutsa chiphaso cha patent chomwe chimafuna kuti apange munthu wolemera komanso m'modzi mwa anthu otchuka kwambiri padziko lapansi. Kuyambira 1887, makinawo adapeza ntchito yawo yoyamba: adayamba kugwiritsidwa ntchito ku US usilikali wachipatala kuti asunge ziwerengero zaumoyo kwa ogwira ntchito ku US Army. Zonsezi pamodzi poyamba zinabweretsa woyambitsa ndalama zopusa za $ 1000 pachaka?
Chithunzi 2 Hollerith kukhomerera khadi
Komabe, injiniya wachinyamatayo ankangoganizirabe za kufufuza zinthu. Zowona, kuwerengera kuchuluka kwa zida zofunika poyamba kunali kosasangalatsa: matani opitilira 450 a makadi okha adzafunika pakuwerengera.
Mpikisano wolengezedwa ndi Census Bureau sunali wophweka ndipo unali ndi gawo lothandiza. Omwe adatenga nawo gawo adayenera kukonza pazida zawo zambiri zomwe zidasonkhanitsidwa kale pa kalembera wam'mbuyomu, ndikutsimikizira kuti apeza zotsatira zofananira mwachangu kuposa omwe adawatsogolera. Payenera kukhala magawo awiri: nthawi yowerengera komanso kulondola.
Mpikisanowo sunali wamwambo ayi. William S. Hunt ndi Charles F. Pidgeon adayima pafupi ndi Hollerith pamasewera osankha. Onse awiri adagwiritsa ntchito zida zazing'ono zodabwitsa, koma maziko awo anali zowerengera zopangidwa ndi manja.
Makina a Hollerith adawonongadi mpikisano. Iwo anapezeka kuti 8-10 nthawi mofulumira komanso kangapo zolondola. Census Bureau idalamula woyambitsayo kuti abwereke zida 56 kwa iye ndalama zokwana $56 pachaka. Sichinali chuma chambiri, koma kuchuluka kwake kunalola Hollerith kugwira ntchito mwamtendere.
Kalembera wa 1890 adafika. Kupambana kwa zida za Hollerith kunali kwakukulu: masabata asanu ndi limodzi (!) Pambuyo pa kalembera wochitidwa ndi ofunsa mafunso pafupifupi 50, zinali zodziwika kale kuti nzika 000 zimakhala ku United States. Chifukwa cha kugwa kwa boma, malamulo oyendetsera dziko adapulumutsidwa.
Zopeza zomaliza za omanga pambuyo pomaliza kalembera zidafika "zambiri" zokwana $750. Kuphatikiza pa chuma chake, kupambana kumeneku kunabweretsa Hollerith kutchuka kwakukulu, mwa zina, adapereka nkhani yonse kwa iye, kulengeza chiyambi cha nyengo yatsopano ya makompyuta: nthawi ya magetsi. Columbia University idawona pepala lake lamakina kukhala lofanana ndi zolemba zake ndipo adamupatsa Ph.D.
Chithunzi 3 Sorter
Ndiyeno Hollerith, ali kale ndi malamulo osangalatsa akunja mu mbiri yake, anayambitsa kampani yaing'ono yotchedwa Tabulating Machine Company (TM Co.); zikuwoneka kuti adayiwalanso kulembetsa mwalamulo, zomwe, komabe, sizinali zofunikira panthawiyo. Kampaniyo idangoyenera kusonkhanitsa makina operekedwa ndi ma subcontractors ndikuwakonzekeretsa kuti agulitse kapena kubwereka.
Posakhalitsa zomera za Hollerith zinayamba kugwira ntchito m'mayiko angapo. Choyamba, mu Austria, amene anaona compatriot mu anayambitsa ndipo anayamba kupanga zipangizo zake; kupatula kuti apa, pogwiritsa ntchito zonyansa zalamulo, adakanidwa patent, kotero kuti ndalama zake zidakhala zotsika kwambiri kuposa momwe amayembekezera. Mu 1892, makina Hollerith anatenga kalembera ku Canada, mu 1893 apadera ulimi kalembera ku United States, kenako anapita ku Norway, Italy ndipo potsiriza ku Russia, kumene mu 1895 anapanga kalembera woyamba ndi wotsiriza m'mbiri pansi pa ulamuliro wa tsarist. Olamulira: lotsatira linapangidwa ndi a Bolshevik okha mu 1926.
Chithunzi 4 Hollerith makina akhazikitsidwa, chosinthira kumanja
Ndalama zomwe woyambitsayo adapeza zidakula ngakhale adakopera ndikulambalala ma patent ake kuti akhale ndi mphamvu - komanso zomwe adawononga, popeza adapereka pafupifupi chuma chake chonse kupanga zatsopano. Choncho anakhala wodzichepetsa kwambiri, wopanda ulemu. Anagwira ntchito mwakhama ndipo sanasamale za thanzi lake; madokotala anamulamula kuti achepetse kwambiri zochita zake. Pamenepa, adagulitsa kampaniyo ku TM Co ndipo adalandira $ 1,2 miliyoni pamagawo ake. Anali miliyoneya ndipo kampaniyo idaphatikizidwa ndi ena anayi kuti akhale CTR - Hollerith adakhala membala wa board ndi mlangizi waukadaulo ndi chindapusa cha $20 pachaka; Anasiya komiti ya otsogolera mu 000 ndipo anasiya kampaniyo patapita zaka zisanu. Pa June 1914, 14, patatha zaka zisanu, kampani yake inasinthanso dzina lake - lomwe limadziwika kwambiri mpaka lero pa makontinenti onse. Dzina: International Business Machines. IBM.
Pakati pa mwezi wa November 1929, Herman Hollerith anagwidwa ndi chimfine ndipo pa November 17, pambuyo pa matenda a mtima, anamwalira kunyumba kwake ku Washington. Imfa yake idangotchulidwa mwachidule m'manyuzipepala. Mmodzi wa iwo adasokoneza dzina la IBM. Lero, pambuyo pa kulakwitsa koteroko, mkonzi wamkulu adzachotsedwa ntchito.
